Epinephelus itajara

– Critically Endangered

Taxonomy

Kingdom:	ANIMALIA
Phylum:	CHORDATA
Class:	ACTINOPTERYGII
Order:	PERCIFORMES
Family:	SERRANIDAE
Scientific Name:	Epinephelus itajara
Species Authority:	(Lichtenstein, 1822)
Synonym/s:	Promicrops ditobo Roux and Collignon, 1954 Promicrops esonue Ehrenbaum, 1915 Serranus galeus Müller and Troschel, 1848 Serranus guasa Poey, 1860 Serranus itajara Lichtenstein, 1822 Serranus mentzelii Valenciennes, 1828 Serranus quinquefasciatus (Bocourt, 1868)
Common Name/s:	GOLIATH GROUPER (Eng) JEWFISH (Eng) MÉROU GÉANT (Fre) MÉROU (Fre) TÊTARD (Fre) CHERNA (Spa) CHERNE (Spa) GUASA (Spa) GUATO (Spa) GUAZA (Spa) MERO BATATA (Spa) MERO GUASA (Spa) MERO GÜASA (Spa) MERO PINTADO (Spa) MERO SAPO (Spa) MERO (Spa)
Taxonomic Notes:	The English common name was changed from Jewfish to Goliath Grouper by the Committee on Names of Fishes of the American Fisheries Society and the American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists on 24 Jan 2001 (Nelson et al 2001). There was also an attempt to call the fish "lord-of-the-rocks" in Brazil, because 'ita' means rock and 'jara' lord in Tupi Guarani, the Brazilian native language (B. Ferreira-Padovani pers. comm.).

Assessment Information

Red List Category & Criteria:

CR A2d ver 3.1 (2001)

Year Assessed:

2006

Assessor/s:

Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B. (Grouper & Wrasse Specialist Group)

Evaluator/s:

Sadovy, Y. & Koenig, C. (Grouper & Wrasse Red List Authority)

Justification:

Although there are now several regulations which prohibit E. itajara from being harvested (e.g., USA since 1990; US Caribbean since 1993; Brazil since 2002) the current stock status of E. itajara is still insufficiently known to consider putting this species down a category on the IUCN Red List. Despite promising signs of recovery in the USA, especially from increased sightings of smaller fish, probable low level continued harvesting of this species, and mortalities on release following accidental capture may induce additional stress to this species so that its recovery could be delayed. Moreover, nothing is known yet about the response to management in Brazil and data are missing on the species from many other places in its range. As a result, high uncertainty is associated with any predictions of recovery rate of the species.

There is a census (stratified random survey using catch-effort and Petersen mark-recapture methods) of the population around Florida and adjacent waters (NOAA funding for a 2-year project) starting in Spring 2006 that will provide data on regional densities in the SE US.

Although the IUCN survey is for the whole range of the species, in the Gulf of Mexico it looks like the population is recovering nicely. The species is still at risk in the Gulf, however, from fishing (poaching during the moratorium) and juvenile habitat loss. But in the SE US they are not Critically Endangered.

The advisory report for Goliath Grouper in southern Florida suggested that the moratorium should be maintained at least until a future assessment shows that the biomass achieves the rebuilding target. Any fishery could risk rapidly deplete the stock and would require careful monitoring (Kingsley 2004). The species is no longer a Species of Concern in the ESA, having recently been removed because of possible recovery indications in the USA.

Downgrading of the IUCN Red List status is not proposed at this time, despite clear and promising signs of recovery in US waters following the 1990 moratorium because the species takes 5 to 6 years to become sexually mature, the increases in numbers noted are young and juvenile fish and because the species had been severely reduced at edge of range locations. Hence many years of protection are needed to enable populations to recover reproductive potential and range. Continued surveys and education programmes for this species and its inclusion in marine protected areas are proposed.

It is recommended that the species be reassessed after 5 years following the completion of surveys about to be initiated in the USA in 2006 and after several years of protection in Brazil. Information is needed from other locations within its range, including the eastern Atlantic and eastern Pacific.

See the attached PDF file for further information about the past declines as indicated by the fishery-independent and fishery-dependent data.

For further information about this species, see 7857.pdf (121 KB). A PDF viewer such as Adobe Acrobat Reader is required.

History:

1996

Critically Endangered (Baillie and Groombridge 1996)

Geographic Range

Range Description:

Found in tropical and subtropical waters of the Atlantic and eastern Pacific oceans. In the western Atlantic, E. itajara ranges from North Carolina to southeast Brazil (Francesconi and Schwartz 2000), and is caught widely in the Gulf of Mexico and most of the Caribbean. It is reported from the eastern Atlantic from Senegal to Congo. In the eastern Pacific, it occurs from the Gulf of California to Peru. (Heemstra and Randall 1993). See the attached PDF for a distribution map.

In Venezuela, the occurrence of E. itajara dates back to Upper Miocene (Urumaco Formation) according to a study on a fossil specimen (Anguilera and de Anguilera 2004).

For further information about this species, see 7857.pdf (121 KB). A PDF viewer such as Adobe Acrobat Reader is required.

Countries:

Native:

Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Aruba; Bahamas; Barbados; Belize; Benin; Brazil; Cameroon; Cayman Islands; Colombia; Congo; Costa Rica; Cuba; Côte d'Ivoire; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; El Salvador; Equatorial Guinea; French Guiana; Gabon; Gambia; Ghana; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guatemala; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Guyana; Haiti; Honduras; Jamaica; Liberia; Martinique; Mexico; Montserrat; Netherlands Antilles (Curaçao); Nicaragua; Nigeria; Panama; Peru; Puerto Rico; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Senegal; Sierra Leone; Suriname; Togo; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks and Caicos Islands; United States (Florida); Venezuela; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S.

Uncertain presence and origin:

Bermuda

FAO Marine Fishing Areas:

Native:

Atlantic-eastern central; Atlantic-southeast; Atlantic-southwest; Atlantic-western central; Pacific-eastern central; Pacific-southeast

Population

Population:

Global or regional abundance of adults is unknown. Abundance is now rare where formerly it was abundant (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). The species, in general, was noted to be uncommon or rare in the mid 1990s, but appears to be recovering in some parts of its range where fishing moratoria were introduced (e.g., Florida).

Juvenile distribution in mangroves depends on local water quality, particularly dissolved oxygen content (>4 ppm) and mid-range salinities (>10 ppt) (www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec 2005).

Female-to-male sex ratio was 1.75 : 1 in the eastern Gulf of Mexico from 1977 to 1990 (Bullock et al. 1992).

Distribution densities of juveniles around mangrove islands (22–61 juveniles per km of mangrove shoreline) in the Ten Thousand Islands were found to be higher and less variable than the densities in rivers (0–46 juveniles per km) (Koenig et al. in press).

Sexual pattern has not been confirmed (Bullock et al. 1992, Sadovy and Eklund 1999).

Most individuals collected from the eastern Gulf of Mexico were between 9 and 15 years (with female and male ages overlapping), few exceeded 30 years (Bullock et al. 1992).

Estimated average length and fishing mortality in the exploited stock were found to be 1161 mm TL and 0.04 per year in the Florida Keys, respectively (Ault et al. 2005).

Population Trend:

Habitat and Ecology

Habitat and Ecology:

General Ecology
Found from inshore to about 100 m in reef, mangrove, seagrass, and estuarine habitats (Sadovy and Eklund 1999).

Juveniles live in shallow bays, holes, below undercut ledges in swift tidal creeks draining mangrove swamp, rivers and estuaries while adults live around structures in, near, and offshore (Bullock et al. 1992, Gerber et al. 2005, Koenig et al. in press). Juveniles exhibit high site fidelity to mangrove habitat for 5–6 years, then emigrate to offshore reefs at body length of about 1 m TL (Koenig et al. in press).

During a survey of the freshwater fish of southern Florida from 1976 to 1983, no E. itajara was collected although the salinity-tolerant juveniles could be found in shallow, costal waters (Loftus and Kushlan 1987). In 181 sites, presence of mangrove areas appears to be important for juveniles (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Koenig et al. (in press) demonstrated the high nursery value of mangrove to juvenile goliath grouper.

Diet
The species feeds on a wide diversity of fishes and invertebrates (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). It is a classic apex predator, large, rare and only a few individuals occur on any given reef unit (Huntsman et al. 1999)

Reproduction
Up to 100, sometimes more, individuals aggregate to spawn at specific times and locations. The aggregations last only a few weeks each year and represent most of the total annual reproductive effort (Sadovy and Eklund 1999). Its reproductive season occurs between June and December, with peak activity indicated from July through September in the eastern Gulf of Mexico (Bullock et al. 1992). Goliath Grouper is one of the few groupers that aggregate in relatively shallow (10–50 m) water (Coleman et al. 2002).

Possible courtship activities (without spawning) were observed on a wreck in the eastern Gulf of Mexico at 33 m depth in August 1990 (Colin 1994). Wrecks are often noted to be spawning areas for this species.

A study indicated that a 1,322 mm SL and a 1,397 mm SL female had a batch fecundity of 38,922,168 ±1,518,283 and 56,599,306 ±1,866,130 oocytes, respectively (Bullock and Smith 1991).

According to a conceptual model for the role of dispersal in a simple life history model of E. itajara, such groupers exhibit a positive response to the establishment of a marine reserve. Apart from inducing an increase in population growth rate, implementation of a reserve could increase population recovery rates by increasing reproductive output (Gerber et al. 2005).

Age, growth and longevity
E. itajara grow slowly relative to their potential maximum size. Growth rates for male and female are similar, averaging >100 mm per year through age 6, then slowing to about 30 mm per year by age 15, and finally declining to <10 mm per year after age 25. Von Bertalanffy growth model was found to be TL (mm) = 206(1-e^{(-0.126(Age+0.49)}) (Bullock et al. 1992).

Maximum size and age recorded were 2,000–2,500 mm TL (Heemstra and Randall 1993), 37 years (female) and 26 years (male) (Bullock et al. 1992), respectively.

Genetic Studies
Loci were found to be scorable and polymorphic across Epinephelus spp., and might be useful for population genetic studies in which appropriate management of the target population can be achieved (Zatcoff et al. 2002).

System:

Marine

List of Habitats:

9.5	Marine Neritic - Subtidal Sandy-Mud
9.8	Marine Neritic - Coral Reef
9.9	Marine Neritic - Seagrass (Submerged)
9.10	Marine Neritic - Estuaries
10.1	Marine Oceanic - Epipelagic (0-200m)
12.1	Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline
12.4	Marine Intertidal - Mud Flats and Salt Flats
13.4	Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes

Threats

Threats:

Life history characteristics of E. itajara make this species highly vulnerable to overfishing (Bullock et al. 1992). E. itajara is of significant commercial and recreational interest. Since the 1970s, landings, mean sizes, and CPUE have fallen sharply in regional fisheries, and growth and recruitment are suspected to be in severe decline in some locations due to overfishing. Loss of critical juvenile habitat would also threaten this species (Sadovy and Eklund 1999).

E. itajara is apparently vulnerable to stresses caused by cold water (Gilmore et al. 1978) or red tide – it was recorded that populations of E. itajara were much reduced during a red tide in 1971 and dead individuals over 45 kg were often observed (Smith 1976). During an outbreak of red tide in Florida in March 2003, eleven large dead Goliath Grouper (sized 12 inches to 81 inches) washed up near the Sanibel Island Causeway (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp, accessed on 4th Jan 2006).

Mangrove habitat loss also affects the recruitment of juveniles, hindering population recovery (www.bio.fsu.edu/coleman_lab/goliath_grouper.html, accessed on 31st Dec 2005).

List of Threats:

1.1.6	Habitat Loss/Degradation - Agriculture - Marine aquaculture (ongoing)
1.1.7	Habitat Loss/Degradation - Agriculture - Freshwater aquaculture (ongoing)
1.3.2.1	Habitat Loss/Degradation - Extraction - Fisheries - Subsistence (ongoing)
1.3.2.2	Habitat Loss/Degradation - Extraction - Fisheries - Artisinal/small-scale (ongoing)
3.1.1	Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Food - Subsistence use/local trade (ongoing)
3.1.2	Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Food - Sub-national/national trade (ongoing)
4.1.1.1	Accidental mortality - Bycatch - Fisheries-related - Hooking (present, future)
8.5	Changes in native species dynamics - Pathogens/parasites (ongoing)
9.2	Intrinsic factors - Poor recruitment/reproduction/regeneration (ongoing)
9.7	Intrinsic factors - Slow growth rates (ongoing)
10.1	Human disturbance - Recreation/tourism (ongoing)

Conservation Actions

Conservation Actions:

E. itajara was listed as a candidate species on the US Endangered Species List, and since 1991 has been referred to as a Species of Concern throughout its geographic range in US waters. However, a recent status review (not a full status review) has had the species removed from this category (M. Nammack, NOAA, pers. comm.). All harvesting of the Goliath Grouper in federal waters of the southeastern United States (including the Gulf of Mexico) has been prohibited since 1990 by the South Atlantic Fisheries Management Council and the Gulf of Mexico Fisheries Management Council and in the Caribbean since 1993 by Caribbean Fishery Management Council.

The NMFS, under the authority of the Magnuson-Stevens Fisheries Conservation and Management Act, lists the Goliath Grouper as overfished in Reports to Congress on the Status of Fisheries (www.sefsc.noaa.gov/redtidegrouper.jsp accessed on 4th Jan 2006, Porch et al. 2003).

The American Fisheries Society classified E. itajara as being conservation dependent. Due to the fish's life history, it is vulnerable to become threatened, but can be kept from threatened status with appropriate protective measures (www.gulfcouncil.org/oldstories/2000-07-20-jewfish-update.htm, accessed on 31st Dec 2005).

Classified as endangered by US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) under the concept of District Population Segments (DPS) but regarded as recovering under Fisheries Management Plan (FMP) (Musick et al. 2000).

The population off the coast of the southeastern United States is listed as a Species of Concern by the NMFS (Federal Register 15 April 2004). Was formerly on the 1999 candidate species list (Federal Register, 23 June 1999) (www.natureserve.org/explorer/servlet/NatureServe?searchName=Epinephelus+itajara accessed on 4th Jan 2006).

A 5-year-protection was granted by the IBAMA (Brazilian Environmental Agency) on 20th September 2002 (www.vidamar.org.br/meros/english/index.php accessed on 3rd Jan 2006).

According to the regulations for E. itajara fishing in Puerto Rico and the US Virgin Islands, fishing in any form for this species is totally prohibited all year (www.caribbeanfmc.com; accessed on 4th Jan 2006).

It was indicated that the ban on spear-fishing in the upper Florida Keys has significantly and beneficially influenced the average size of groupers, although their populations in this region have not reached stable levels (Sluka and Sullivan 1998).

List of Conservation Actions:

1.1.1	Policy-based actions - Management plans - Development (in place, needed)
1.1.2	Policy-based actions - Management plans - Implementation (in place, needed)
1.2.1.2	Policy-based actions - Legislation - Development - National level (in place, needed)
1.2.1.3	Policy-based actions - Legislation - Development - Sub-national level (in place, needed)
1.2.2.2	Policy-based actions - Legislation - Implementation - National level (in place, needed)
1.2.2.3	Policy-based actions - Legislation - Implementation - Sub-national level (in place, needed)
2.1	Communication and Education - Formal education (in place, needed)
2.2	Communication and Education - Awareness (in place, needed)
3.1	Research actions - Taxonomy (in place)
3.2	Research actions - Population numbers and range (in place, needed)
3.3	Research actions - Biology and Ecology (in place, needed)
3.4	Research actions - Habitat status (in place, needed)
3.5	Research actions - Threats (in place, needed)
3.6	Research actions - Uses and harvest levels (in place, needed)
3.8	Research actions - Conservation measures (in place, needed)
3.9	Research actions - Trends/Monitoring (in place, needed)
4.1	Habitat and site-based actions - Maintenance/Conservation (in place, needed)
4.4.1	Habitat and site-based actions - Protected areas - Identification of new protected areas (in place, needed)
4.4.2	Habitat and site-based actions - Protected areas - Establishment (in place, needed)
4.4.3	Habitat and site-based actions - Protected areas - Management (in place, needed)
4.4.4	Habitat and site-based actions - Protected areas - Expansion (in place, needed)
5.4	Species-based actions - Recovery management (in place, needed)
5.7.1	Species-based actions - Ex situ conservation actions - Captive breeding/Artificial propagation (in place, needed)

Bibliography

Bibliography:

Anguilera, O and de Aguilera, D.R. 2004. Goliath grouper (Pisces: Serranidae) from the Upper Miocene Urumaco Formation, Venezuela. Journal of Paleontology 78(6): 1202-1206.

Ault, J.S., Smith, S.G. and Bohnsack, J.A. 2005. Evaluation of average length as an estimator of exploitation status for the Florida coral-reef community. ICES Journal of Marine Science 62: 417-423.

Baillie, J. and Groombridge, B. (compilers and editors) 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Bohnsack, J.A., Harper, D.E. and McClellan, D.B. 1994. Fisheries trends from Monroe County, Florida. Bulletin of Marine Science 54(3): 982-1018.

Bullock, L.H. and Smith, G.B. 1991. Seabasses (Pisces: Serranidae). Memoirs of the Hourglass Cruises, Volume VIII, Part II. Florida Marine Research Institute, Department of Natural Resources, St. Petersburg, Florida. 243 pp.

Bullock, L.H., Murphy, M.D., Godcharles, M.F. and Mitchell, M.E. 1992. Age, growth and reproduction of jewfish Epinephelus itajara in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. Fisheries Bulletin 90: 243-249.

Cass-Calay, S.L. and Schmidt, T.W. 2003. Standardized catch rates of juvenile goliath grouper, Epinephelus itajara, from the Everglades National Park Creel Survey, 1973-1999. Sustainable Fisheries Division Contribution SFD-2003-0016, 17pp. (See http://www.gulfcouncil.org/downloads/GG2003-STANDARDIZED%20CATCH%20RATES%20OF%20JUVENILE.pdf)

Cervigón, F. 1983. La acuicultura en Venezuela: estado actual y perspectives. Editorial Arte., Caracas, 121pp.

Coleman, F., Koenig, C. and Eklund, A. 2002. Report to The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation on the Preliminary Studies Using Pop-up Archival Satellite Tags to Track Movements of Adult Goliath Grouper Epinephelus itajara Populations in the Eastern Gulf of Mexico.16pp.

Colin, P.L. 1994. Preliminary investigations of reproductive activity of the jewfish, Epinephelus itajara (Pisces: Serranidae). Proceedings of the Gulf and Carribean Fisheries Institute 43: 138-147.

Ferreira, B. and Maida, M. 1995. Projecto Mero: apresentacao e resultados preliminaries. Boletim Tecnico-Cientifico do CEPENE-Ibama 3(1): 201-210.

Floeter, S.R., Halpern, B.S. and Ferreira, C.E.L. 2006. Effects of fishing and protection on Brazilian reef fishes. Biological Conservation 128: 391-402.

Francesconi, J.J. and Schwartz, F.J. 2000. Jewfish, Epinephelus itajara, from North Carolina, with range correction and body comparisons. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society 116(2): 167-170.

Gerber L.R., Heppell, S.S., Ballantyne, F. and Sala, E. 2005. The role of dispersal and demography in determining the efficacy of marine reserve. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 62(4): 863-871.

Gilmore, R.G., Bullock, L.H. and Berry, F.H. 1978. Hypothermal mortality in marine fishes of south-central Florida January 1977. Northeast Gulf Science 2(2): 77-97.

Gomez, A.E. and Zapata, L.A. 1999. An overview on the fishery and biology of the grouper and of the seabass (Pisces: Serranidae) in the Colombian Pacific. Boletin Cientifico 6: 227-246.

Heemstra, P.C. and Randall, J.E. 1993. FAO species catalogue. Vol. 16. Groupers of the world (Family Serranidae, Subfamily Epinephelinae). An annotated and illustrated catalogue of the grouper, rockcod, hind, coral grouper and lyretail species known to date. FAO Fisheries Synopsis. No. 125, Vol. 16. Rome, FAO.

Huntsman, G.R., Potts, J., Mays, R.W. and Vaughan, D. 1999. Groupers (Serranidae, Ephinephelinae): endangered apex predators of reef communities. In: J.A. Musick (ed.) Life in the Slow lane: Ecology and Conservation of Long-Lived Marine Animals, pp. 231-271. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.

Kingsley, M.C.S. (ed.). 2004. The goliath grouper in southern Florida: assessment review and advisory report. Report prepared for the South Atlantic Fishery Management Council, the Gulf of Mexico Fishery Management Council, and the National Marine Fisheries Service. Data and Assessment Review. Vii + 17pp. (See http://www.gulfcouncil.org/downloads/goliathfinalSEDAR2004.pdf).

Koenig, C., Coleman, F. and Eklund, A. 1997. Report to The Curtis and Edith Munson Foundation on Studies of the jewfish (Epinephelus itajara) in the eastern Gulf of Mexico. 28pp.

Koenig, C.C., Coleman, F.C., Eklund, A.M., Schull, J. and Ueland, J. In press. Mangrove as essential nursery habitat for goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara). Bulletin of Marine Science (in press).

Loftus, W.F. and Kushlan, J.A. 1987. Freshwater fishes of southern Florida. Bulletin of the Florida State Museum, Biological Sciences 31(4): 147-344.

Musick, J.A., Harbin, M.M., Berkeley, S.A., Burgess, G.H., Eklund, A.M., Findley, L., Gilmore, R.G., Golden, J.T., Ha, D.S., Huntsman, G.R., McGovern, J.C., Parker, S.J., Poss, S.G., Sala, E., Schmidt T.W., Sedberry, G.R., Weeks, H. and Wright, S.G. 2000. Marine, estuarine, and diadromous fish stocks at risk of extinction in North America (Exclusive of Pacific Salmonids). Fisheries 25(11): 6-30.

Nelson, J.S., Crossman, E.J., Espinosa-Perez, H., Findley, L.T., Gilbert, C.R., Lea, R.N. and Williams, J.D. 2001. Recommended change in the common name for a marine fish: goliath grouper to replace jewfish (Epinephelus itajara). Fisheries – American Fisheries Society 26(5): 31-34. (See www.fisheries.org).

Porch, C.E. and Eklund, A.M. 2003. Standardized visual counts of goliath grouper off south Florida and their possible use as indices of abundance. Sustainable Fisheries Division Contribution SFD-2003-0017, 23p. (See http://www.gulfcouncil.org/downloads/GG2003-visualcounts-porchandeklund073003.pdf).

Porch, C.E., Eklund, A.M. and Scott, G.P. 2003. An assessment of rebuilding times for goliath grouper. SEDAR Goliath Grouper Data Workshop Report, March 2003, 11pp.

Sadovy, Y. and Eklund, A.-M. 1999. Synopsis of biological data on the Nassau grouper, Epinephelus striatus (Bloch, 1792) and the Jewfish, E. itijara (Lichtenstein, 1822). U.S. Dep. Commer., NOAA Technical Report NMFS 146, and FAO Fisheries Synopsis 157.

Sala, E., Aburto-Oropeza, O., Paredes, G. and Thompson, G. 2003. Spawning aggregations and reproductive behavior of reef fishes in the Gulf of California. Bulletin of Marine Science 72(1): 103-121.

Sluka, R., Chiappone, M., Sullivan, K.M. and Wright, R. 1996. Habitat and Life in the Exuma Cays, the Bahamas: The status of groupers and coral reefs in the northern cays. Media Publishing, Nassau, Bahamas. 83 pp.

Sluka, R.D. and Sullivan, K.M. 1998. The influence of spear fishing on species composition and size of groupers on patch reefs in the upper Florida Keys. Fishery Bulletin 96(2): 388-392.

Smith, G.B. 1976. Ecology and distribution of eastern Gulf of Mexico reef fishes. Florida Marine Research Publications No. 19, 78pp.

Zatcoff, M.S., Ball, A.O. and Chapman R.W. 2002. Characterization of polymorphic microsatellite loci from black grouper, Mycteroperca bonaci (Teleostei: Serranidae). Molecular Ecology Notes 2: 217-219.

Citation:	Chan Tak-Chuen, T. & Padovani Ferrera, B. 2006. Epinephelus itajara. In: IUCN 2007. 2007 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 04 July 2008.
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