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Spheniscus humboldti
– Vulnerable
Taxonomy
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Kingdom:
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ANIMALIA
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Phylum:
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CHORDATA
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Class:
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AVES
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Order:
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SPHENISCIFORMES
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Family:
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SPHENISCIDAE
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Scientific Name:
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Spheniscus humboldti
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Species Authority:
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Meyen, 1834
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Common Name/s:
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| English | — | HUMBOLDT PENGUIN |
| French | — | MANCHOT DE HUMBOLDT |
| Spanish | — | PINGÜINO DE HUMBOLDT |
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Assessment Information
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Red List Category & Criteria:
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VU A2bcd+3bcd; C1+2b ver 3.1 (2001)
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Year Assessed:
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2005
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Assessor/s:
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BirdLife International
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Evaluator/s:
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Benstead, P., Butchart, S. (BirdLife International Red List Authority) & Clay, R. (Guyra Paraguay: Conservación de Aves)
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Justification:
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This species has undergone extreme population fluctuations, close to one order of magnitude at major colonies in Chile. However, an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicates that there is probably an ongoing, underlying decline in numbers. It consequently qualifies as Vulnerable. A more thorough understanding of the population dynamics may show the species to warrant uplisting to Endangered.
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History:
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| 1988 | - | Threatened (Collar and Andrew 1988) |
| 1994 | - | Lower Risk/near threatened (Collar, Crosby and Stattersfield 1994) |
| 2000 | - | Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2000) |
| 2004 | - | Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2004) |
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Geographic Range
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Range Description:
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Spheniscus humboldti occurs in coastal Peru and Chile with vagrants recorded in Colombia7. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,0803,4,5. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds, mainly at Punta San Juan (3,400 birds) and Isla Pachacamac (800) in Peru, and Isla Pan de Azúcar (1,750), Isla de Chañaral (2,500), Isla Pájaros (1,000), Islote Cachagua (2,000) and ex-Islote Pájaro Niño (1,600) in Chile1. The 1997-1998 ENSO reduced the population again to 3,300 birds6. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 19963, but had recovered to six by 19998. Surveys in Peru during 1999-2000 recorded the species at 21 localities, 10-14 of which were considered breeding sites13. However, in both years, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds were clustered in just five colonies13. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the central coastal area in 199913. Increases have only occurred at colonies with active protection13. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently3. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years1.
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Countries:
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Native:
Chile; Peru
Vagrant:
Colombia; Ecuador
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FAO Marine Fishing Areas:
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Native:
Pacific-southeast
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Population
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Population Trend:
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Habitat and Ecology
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Habitat and Ecology:
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It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves1,3, though apparently prefering to breed in high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation11. Breeding occurs year-round, with reproductive success reported as low, especially in Chile1, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)11. There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru2,12, and occasionally over 600 km 2,12. It feeds mainly in inshore waters.
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System:
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Terrestrial; Marine
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Threats
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Threats:
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Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano10. Guano is still "harvested" in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat11. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks and entanglement in nets1,10,12. Other threats include capture for food (not only subsistence) and use as fish bait, human disturbance, predation by rats and cats, and marine pollution1,3.
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Conservation Actions
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Conservation Actions:
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Conservation measures underway:
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile, there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected1,9. In Peru, the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan1,6.
Conservation measures proposed:
Monitor the population3. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting3. Create marine reserves around colonies3. Establish awareness programmes to reduce hunting and bycatch3. Reduce fish harvests during ENSO events3. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions3.
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