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Lutra lutra
– Near Threatened
Taxonomy
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Kingdom:
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ANIMALIA
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Phylum:
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CHORDATA
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Class:
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MAMMALIA
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Order:
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CARNIVORA
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Family:
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MUSTELIDAE
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Scientific Name:
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Lutra lutra
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Species Authority:
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(Linnaeus, 1758)
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Common Name/s:
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COMMON OTTER (Eng)
EURASIAN OTTER (Eng)
EUROPEAN OTTER (Eng)
EUROPEAN RIVER OTTER (Eng)
OLD WORLD OTTER (Eng)
LOUTRE COMMUNE (Fre)
LOUTRE D'EUROPE (Fre)
LOUTRE DE RIVIÈRE (Fre)
NUTRIA COMÚN (Spa)
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Taxonomic Notes:
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The Japanese subpopulation may be recognised as a distinct species L. nippon Imaizumi and Yoshiyuki, 1989. C. Reuther (in litt. 2003) says this should not be accepted as there is not sufficient data to warrant such a split.
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Assessment Information
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Red List Category & Criteria:
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NT ver 3.1 (2001)
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Year Assessed:
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2004
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Assessor/s:
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Reuther, C. & Hilton-Taylor, C.
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Evaluator/s:
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Hussain, S.A. & Reuther, C. (Otter Red List Authority)
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Justification:
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The previous assessment (done in 1999) was based on a past population decline of more than 20% over the last three generations. The threshold for Vulnerable under Criterion A has changed to 30% in the 2001 version of the Red List Criteria. Given this change in threshold and the indications that the population is recovering in western Europe and that viable populations occur in the former USSR, it would seem that the species no longer qualifies for a VU listing. However, given the lack of information from huge parts of the range, the past declines (and even local extinctions) and the sensitivity of the species to sudden changes in threats, a Near Threatened listing seems to be adequate. By this the concerns are also taken into account about the status of populations in the far east - China and Indo-China - because of possible over-exploitation. The Near Threatened listing is also a more precautionary approach, as it indicates that the recovery in western Europe is a genuine one and that conservation actions for this species need to be sustained, plus there is some concern about what is happening in parts of its range.
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History:
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| 1996 | - | Lower Risk/least concern (Baillie and Groombridge 1996) |
| 1999 | - | Vulnerable (Hilton-Taylor 2000) |
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Geographic Range
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Range Description:
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The Eurasian otter has the widest distribution of all otter species. Its range covers parts of three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. Originally the species was widespread throughout Europe. Little is known about the original distribution in Africa and Asia.
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Countries:
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Native:
Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Andorra; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Bhutan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Cambodia; China; Croatia; Czech Republic; Denmark; Estonia; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Gibraltar; Greece; Hong Kong; Hungary; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kyrgyzstan; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Latvia; Lebanon; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova, Republic of; Mongolia; Montenegro; Morocco; Myanmar; Nepal; Netherlands; Norway; Pakistan; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; San Marino; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sweden; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Thailand; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine; United Kingdom; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam
Regionally extinct:
Japan; Switzerland
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Population
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Population Trend:
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Habitat and Ecology
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Habitat and Ecology:
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It is known from a wide variety of aquatic habitats, including highland and lowland lakes, rivers, streams, marshes, swamp forests and coastal areas. Otters have been found in the brackish waters below sea level in the Netherlands, up to 1,000 m and more in the Alps or the Pyrenees, and above 3,500 m in the Himalayas or 4,120 m in Tibet. It is very adaptable, using saltwater as well as freshwater habitats, sewerage systems in urban areas or rivers in Asia. In most parts of its range otter distribution is correlated with bank side vegetation. Otters in different regions may depend upon different features of the habitat, but the important component of otter habitat, for breeding purposes, is the presence of holes in the river bank, cavities among tree roots, piles of rock, wood or debris. The Eurasian otter avoids deep water. Their distribution in coastal areas, especially the location of holts, is strongly correlated with the presence of freshwater.
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System:
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Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine
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List of Habitats:
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| 1.5 | Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry |
| 1.6 | Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland |
| 1.7 | Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above High Tide Level |
| 1.8 | Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Swamp |
| 3.6 | Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist |
| 4.6 | Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Seasonally Wet/Flooded |
| 5.1 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Rivers/Streams/Creeks (includes waterfalls) |
| 5.2 | Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent/Irregular Rivers/Streams/Creeks |
| 5.3 | Wetlands (inland) - Shrub Dominated Wetlands |
| 5.4 | Wetlands (inland) - Bogs, Marshes, Swamps, Fens, Peatlands |
| 5.5 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha) |
| 5.6 | Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Lakes (over 8ha) |
| 5.7 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under 8ha) |
| 5.8 | Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Freshwater Marshes/Pools (under 8ha) |
| 5.9 | Wetlands (inland) - Freshwater Springs and Oases |
| 5.10 | Wetlands (inland) - Tundra Wetlands (incl. pools and temporary waters from snowmelt) |
| 5.11 | Wetlands (inland) - Alpine Wetlands (includes temporary waters from snowmelt) |
| 5.13 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Inland Deltas |
| 5.14 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes |
| 5.15 | Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Lakes and Flats |
| 5.16 | Wetlands (inland) - Permanent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools |
| 5.17 | Wetlands (inland) - Seasonal/Intermittent Saline, Brackish or Alkaline Marshes/Pools |
| 9.7 | Marine Neritic - Macroalgal/Kelp |
| 9.10 | Marine Neritic - Estuaries |
| 12.1 | Marine Intertidal - Rocky Shoreline |
| 12.2 | Marine Intertidal - Sandy Shoreline and/or Beaches, Sand Bars, Spits, Etc |
| 12.4 | Marine Intertidal - Mud Flats and Salt Flats |
| 12.5 | Marine Intertidal - Salt Marshes (Emergent Grasses) |
| 13.4 | Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Brackish/Saline Lagoons/Marine Lakes |
| 13.5 | Marine Coastal/Supratidal - Coastal Freshwater Lakes |
| 15.1 | Artificial/Aquatic - Water Storage Areas (over 8ha) |
| 15.2 | Artificial/Aquatic - Ponds (below 8ha) |
| 15.3 | Artificial/Aquatic - Aquaculture Ponds |
| 15.7 | Artificial/Aquatic - Irrigated Land (includes irrigation channels) |
| 15.8 | Artificial/Aquatic - Seasonally Flooded Agricultural Land |
| 15.9 | Artificial/Aquatic - Canals and Drainage Channels, Ditches |
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Threats
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Threats:
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The aquatic habitats of otters are extremely vulnerable to man-made changes. Canalisation of rivers, removal of bank side vegetation, dam construction, draining of wetlands, aquaculture activities and associated man-made impacts on aquatic systems are all unfavourable to otter populations. Pollution is major threat to the otters in western and central Europe, the main pollutants posing a danger to otters are the organochlorines dieldrin (HEOD) and DDT/DDE, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and the heavy metal mercury. Coastal populations are particularly vulnerable to oil spills. Acidification of rivers and lakes results in the decline of fish biomass and reduces the food resources of the otters. The same effects are known to result from organic pollution by nitrate fertilisers, untreated sewage, or farm slurry. In addition, major causes of mortality from several countries are drowning, road kills, and poaching. Fyke nets set for eels or for fish as well as creels set for marine crustaceans have a great attraction to otters and a high risk to those that successfully try to enter these traps. A further potential threat is strangulation by transparent, monofilament drift net. A potential risk comes from traps designed to kill other species, especially underwater cages constructed to drown muskrats. Illegal hunting is still a problem in many parts of their distribution range. In several European countries political pressure especially by fishermen has resulted in granting of licenses for killing otters.
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List of Threats:
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| 1.1.7 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Agriculture - Freshwater aquaculture (ongoing) |
| 1.3.2.1 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Extraction - Fisheries - Subsistence (ongoing) |
| 1.3.2.2 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Extraction - Fisheries - Artisinal/small-scale (ongoing) |
| 1.3.2.3 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Extraction - Fisheries - Large-scale/industrial (ongoing) |
| 1.4.1 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Infrastructure development - Industry (ongoing) |
| 1.4.2 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Infrastructure development - Human settlement (ongoing) |
| 1.4.3 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Infrastructure development - Tourism/recreation (ongoing) |
| 1.4.6 | Habitat Loss/Degradation - Infrastructure development - Dams (ongoing) |
| 3.2.1 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Medicine - Subsistence use/local trade (ongoing) |
| 3.2.2 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Medicine - Sub-national/national trade (ongoing) |
| 3.2.3 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Medicine - Regional/international trade (ongoing) |
| 3.4.1 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Materials - Subsistence use/local trade (ongoing) |
| 3.4.2 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Materials - Sub-national/national trade (ongoing) |
| 3.4.3 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Materials - Regional/international trade (ongoing) |
| 3.5.1 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Cultural/scientific/leisure activities - Subsistence use/local trade (ongoing) |
| 3.5.2 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Cultural/scientific/leisure activities - Sub-national/national trade (ongoing) |
| 3.5.3 | Harvesting (hunting/gathering) - Cultural/scientific/leisure activities - Regional/international trade (ongoing) |
| 4.1.1.2 | Accidental mortality - Bycatch - Fisheries-related - Netting (ongoing) |
| 4.1.1.3 | Accidental mortality - Bycatch - Fisheries-related - Entanglement (ongoing) |
| 4.1.2.1 | Accidental mortality - Bycatch - Terrestrial - Trapping/snaring/netting (ongoing) |
| 4.1.2.2 | Accidental mortality - Bycatch - Terrestrial - Shooting (ongoing) |
| 5.1 | Persecution - Pest control (ongoing) |
| 6.1.2 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Atmospheric pollution - Acid precipitation (ongoing) |
| 6.3.1 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Water pollution - Agriculture (ongoing) |
| 6.3.2 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Water pollution - Domestic (ongoing) |
| 6.3.3 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Water pollution - Commercial/Industrial (ongoing) |
| 6.3.4 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Water pollution - Other non-agricultural (ongoing) |
| 6.3.6 | Pollution (affecting habitat and/or species) - Water pollution - Oil slicks (ongoing) |
| 8.3 | Changes in native species dynamics - Prey/food base (ongoing) |
| 10.1 | Human disturbance - Recreation/tourism (ongoing) |
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Conservation Actions
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List of Conservation Actions:
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| 1.1.1 | Policy-based actions - Management plans - Development (in place, needed) |
| 1.1.2 | Policy-based actions - Management plans - Implementation (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.1.1 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Development - International level (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.1.2 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Development - National level (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.1.3 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Development - Sub-national level (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.2.1 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Implementation - International level (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.2.2 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Implementation - National level (in place, needed) |
| 1.2.2.3 | Policy-based actions - Legislation - Implementation - Sub-national level (in place, needed) |
| 2.1 | Communication and Education - Formal education (in place, needed) |
| 2.2 | Communication and Education - Awareness (in place, needed) |
| 2.3 | Communication and Education - Capacity-building/Training (in place, needed) |
| 3.1 | Research actions - Taxonomy (in place, needed) |
| 3.2 | Research actions - Population numbers and range (in place, needed) |
| 3.3 | Research actions - Biology and Ecology (in place, needed) |
| 3.4 | Research actions - Habitat status (in place, needed) |
| 3.5 | Research actions - Threats (in place, needed) |
| 3.6 | Research actions - Uses and harvest levels (in place, needed) |
| 3.8 | Research actions - Conservation measures (in place, needed) |
| 3.9 | Research actions - Trends/Monitoring (in place, needed) |
| 4.1 | Habitat and site-based actions - Maintenance/Conservation (in place, needed) |
| 4.2 | Habitat and site-based actions - Restoration (in place, needed) |
| 4.3 | Habitat and site-based actions - Corridors (in place, needed) |
| 5.1 | Species-based actions - Re-introductions (in place, needed) |
| 5.2 | Species-based actions - Benign introductions (in place, needed) |
| 5.4 | Species-based actions - Recovery management (in place, needed) |
| 5.7.1 | Species-based actions - Ex situ conservation actions - Captive breeding/Artificial propagation (in place, needed) |
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Bibliography
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Bibliography:
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Baillie, J. and Groombridge, B. (compilers and editors) 1996. 1996 IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. Beja, P.R. 1992. Effects of freshwater availability on the summer distribution of otters Lutra lutra in the southwest coast of Portugal. Ecography 15: 273-278. Conroy, J. 1995. Otters and oil spills - the impacts and the effects. Cahiers d'Ethologie 15(2-4): 325-336. Conroy, J., Melisch, R. and Chanin, P. 1998. The distribution and status of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra) in Asia – A preliminary review. IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin 15(1): 15-30. Green, R. 1991. The impacts of hunting, poaching and accidents on otter survival and measures to protect individual animals. In: C. Reuther and R. Röchert (eds) Proceedings V. International Otter Colloquium, Hankensbüttel 1989. Habitat No.6, pp.171-190. Hankensbüttel, Germany. Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler). 2000. 2000 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. Jefferies, D.J., Johnson, A., Green, R. and Hanson, H.M. 1989. Entanglement with monofilament nylon fishing net: A hazard to otters. Otters, Journal of the Otter Trust 2(2): 11-16. Kruuk, H. 1995. Wild otters - Predation and populations. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Kruuk, H. and Balharry, D. 1990. Effects of seawater on the thermal insulation of the otter, Lutra lutra L. Journal of Zoology (London) 220: 405-415. Kruuk, H. and Conroy, J.W.H. 1991. Mortality of otters (Lutra lutra) in Shetland. Journal of Applied Ecology 28: 83-94. Mason, C.F. 1989.Water pollution and otter distribution: a review. Lutra 32: 97-134. Mason, C.F. and Macdonald, S.M. 1986. Otters: ecology and conservation. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Mason, C.F. and Macdonald, S.M. 1988. Radioactivity in otter scats in Britain following the Chernobyl reactor accident. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 37:131-137. Otter Specialist Group. For more information, see the Specialist Group website Prater, S.H. 1971. The book of Indian animals. Third edition. Bombay Natural History Society. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Ruiz-Olmo, J. and Gosalbez, J. 1997. Observations on the sprainting behaviour of the otter Lutra lutra in the NE Spain. Acta Theriologica 42(3): 259-270. Skarén, U. 1988. Chlorinated hydrocarbons, PCBs and cesium isotopes in otters (Lutra lutra L.) from central Finland. Annales Zoologici Fennici 25: 271-276. Skarén, U. 1992. Analysis of one hundred otters killed by accidents in central Finland. IUCN Otter Specialist Group Bulletin 7: 9-12. Strachan, R. and Jefferies, D.J. 1996. Otter survey of England 1991-1994. The Vincent Wildlife Trust, London.
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