Enhydra lutris

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	MAMMALIA	CARNIVORA	MUSTELIDAE

Scientific Name:

Enhydra lutris

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Sea Otter
French	–	Loutre De Mer
Spanish	–	Nutria Del Kamtchatka, Nutria Marina

Taxonomic Notes:

Three regional subspecies have been confirmed by Cronin et al. (1996); E. l. lutris (Linnaeus, 1758) from the Asian range of the Kuril Islands southeast to the Kamchatka Peninsula, E. l. gracilis (Bechstein, 1800) from the Commander Islands; Aleutian Islands to Prince William Sound, Alaska, USA, along the Pacific coast of Canada and into Oregon state in the continental USA, and E. l. nereis (Merriam, 1904) from central California, USA.

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Endangered A2abe ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2008

Assessor/s

Doroff, A. & Burdin, A.

Evaluator/s:

Hussain, S.A. & Conroy, J. (Otter Red List Authority)

Justification:

This species is considered to be Endangered due to a population decline in the past, and which is ongoing. In the three generations (30 years) since the massive population declines in the past (>70%) the species has been recovering in many areas thanks to intensive management and regulatory efforts by several governments, however it continues to decline over much of its current range. Studies from Alaska and California show a decrease in the number of Sea Otters (of up to 70% in western Alaska) because of predation by Killer Whales (3-4% per year in California) (Dorof 2007, Dorof et al. 2003, Estes 2000, Lance et al. 2004). The populations along the Alaska Peninsula (~157 degrees) and extending to Attu Island (~172 degrees) have declined from about 50% to >90%. Along the Aleutian chain of Islands the population decline was >96%. In addition, recent studies have found infectious disease to be an important mortality factor in California sea otter populations (Dorof 2007, Lance et al. 2004). Around 280 Sea Otters found dead have been linked “to a pair of protozoan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii and Sacrocystis neurona, that are known to breed in cats and opossums" (Lance et al. 2004). Wisconsin examined 195 sea otter carcasses collected in California and found infectious diseases (acanthocephalan peritonitis, protozoal encephalitis, bacterial and fungal infections) caused mortality in 38.5% of those examined (Thomas and Cole 1996). The situation in the Russian Federation is clearer now. The sea otter number on the Commander Islands reached maximum since last 150 years period (Burdin, Zagrebelny, 2006). In 2007, the direct count revealed around 8,000 otters in both Bering and Medny Islands. The Commanders Island population of sea otter was never so abundant, but in 2008, it was found that the population was on decline. In 2004 the Kuril Islands population of sea otter was estimated around 19,000 (Kornev and Korneva, 2004), but later count have shown sever decline (up to 40-50% in different locations). Though the causes of such decline are not very clear, the threat due to poaching can’t be ruled out.

History:

2000	–	Endangered
1996	–	Lower Risk/least concern (Baillie and Groombridge 1996)

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Sea Otters occur in nearshore marine waters along the coasts of California, Washington, British Columbia, Alaska, Russia (Kuril Islands, Kamchatka Peninsula and Commander Islands) and Japan. The original distribution was from 27°32' N on the Pacific coast of Baja California (Ogden 1941). northward along the Pacific coast of North America to Prince William Sound, southwestward along the Alaska Peninsula and through the Aleutian, Pribilof, and Commander islands to Kamchatka, and south through the Kuril Islands to Sakhalin and Hokkaido (Estes 1980). The longest gap in the original distribution was 300 km between the Near and Commander islands (Lensink 1960). Abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant population two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; five in the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaska Peninsula; and one each at Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, the Queen Charlotte Islands, central California, and San Benito Islands (Estes 1980). In recent years much of the original range is occupied from the Kuril Islands, across the north Pacific to Prince William Sound; they are largely absent to the southeast of Prince William Sound. Translocations have re-established Sea Otters at Chichagof and Baranof islands, southeast Alaska (Jameson et al. 1978), and Vancouver Island (Bigg and MacAskie 1978).
Countries:	Native: Canada; Japan; Mexico; Russian Federation; United States
Range Map:	(click map to view full version)

Population [top]

Population:	The Sea Otter population thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000, occurring along the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja Peninsula in Mexico. Its abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant populations: two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; five in the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaska Peninsula; and one each at Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, the Queen Charlotte Islands, central California, and San Benito Islands. Several of these subsequently declined to extinction (Kenyon 1969). Today much of the original range is occupied from the Kuril Islands, across the north Pacific to Prince William Sound; they are largely absent to the southeast of Prince William Sound (Estes 1980). Sea Otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, and there have been reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 Sea Otters. As of 2004, Sea Otters have repopulated their entire former habitat in these areas, with an estimated population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are in the Kurils, 2,000 to 3,500 on Kamchatka and another 5,000-5,500 on the Commander Islands. The Sea Otter population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 individuals in 1973. By 2006, however, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals. A massive decline in Sea Otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation was suspected. The Sea Otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of Sea Otters in 1989. Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the Sea Otter's range is discontinuous. Between 1969 and 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They established a healthy population, estimated to be over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range is now from Tofino to Cape Scott. In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which had a size of about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade. In 1969 and 1970, 59 Sea Otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington State. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point. California has over 3,000 Sea Otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938. The spring 2007 Sea Otter survey counted 3,026 Sea Otters in the central California coast, down from an estimated pre-fur trade population of 16,000. California's Sea Otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern Sea Otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938; their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County. In the late 1980s, the US Fish and Wildlife Service relocated about 140 California Sea Otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California for establishing a reserve population should the mainland is struck by an oil spill. The San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland, As of 2005, only 30 Sea Otters remained at San Nicholas, thriving on the abundant prey around the island
Population Trend:	Stable

Population:

The Sea Otter population thought to have once been 150,000 to 300,000, occurring along the North Pacific from northern Japan to the central Baja Peninsula in Mexico. Its abundance was greatly reduced by human exploitation. Between 1751 and 1911 the distribution was reduced to 13 known remnant populations: two in the Kuril Islands and Kamchatka; one in the Commander Islands; five in the Aleutian Islands and along the Alaska Peninsula; and one each at Kodiak Island, Prince William Sound, the Queen Charlotte Islands, central California, and San Benito Islands. Several of these subsequently declined to extinction (Kenyon 1969). Today much of the original range is occupied from the Kuril Islands, across the north Pacific to Prince William Sound; they are largely absent to the southeast of Prince William Sound (Estes 1980).

Sea Otters currently have stable populations in parts of the Russian east coast, Alaska, British Columbia, Washington, and California, and there have been reports of recolonizations in Mexico and Japan. Population estimates made between 2004 and 2007 give a worldwide total of approximately 107,000 Sea Otters. As of 2004, Sea Otters have repopulated their entire former habitat in these areas, with an estimated population of about 27,000. Of these, about 19,000 are in the Kurils, 2,000 to 3,500 on Kamchatka and another 5,000-5,500 on the Commander Islands.

The Sea Otter population in Alaska was estimated at between 100,000 and 125,000 individuals in 1973. By 2006, however, the Alaska population had fallen to an estimated 73,000 animals. A massive decline in Sea Otter populations in the Aleutian Islands accounts for most of the change; the cause of this decline is not known, although orca predation was suspected. The Sea Otter population in Prince William Sound was also hit hard by the Exxon Valdez oil spill, which killed thousands of Sea Otters in 1989. Along the North American coast south of Alaska, the Sea Otter's range is discontinuous. Between 1969 and 1972, 89 sea otters were flown or shipped from Alaska to the west coast of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. They established a healthy population, estimated to be over 3,000 as of 2004, and their range is now from Tofino to Cape Scott. In 1989, a separate colony was discovered in the central British Columbia coast. It is not known if this colony, which had a size of about 300 animals in 2004, was founded by transplanted otters or by survivors of the fur trade.

In 1969 and 1970, 59 Sea Otters were translocated from Amchitka Island to Washington State. Annual surveys between 2000 and 2004 have recorded between 504 and 743 individuals, and their range is in the Olympic Peninsula from just south of Destruction Island to Pillar Point. California has over 3,000 Sea Otters, descendants of approximately 50 individuals discovered in 1938. The spring 2007 Sea Otter survey counted 3,026 Sea Otters in the central California coast, down from an estimated pre-fur trade population of 16,000. California's Sea Otters are the descendants of a single colony of about 50 southern Sea Otters discovered near Big Sur in 1938; their principal range is now from just south of San Francisco to Santa Barbara County.

In the late 1980s, the US Fish and Wildlife Service relocated about 140 California Sea Otters to San Nicolas Island in southern California for establishing a reserve population should the mainland is struck by an oil spill. The San Nicholas population initially shrank as the animals migrated back to the mainland, As of 2005, only 30 Sea Otters remained at San Nicholas, thriving on the abundant prey around the island

Population Trend:

Stable

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Throughout their range, Sea Otters use a variety of near shore marine environment usually in depths under 40 m and stay within a kilometer of the shore. Their classic association is with rocky substrates supporting kelp beds, but they also frequent soft-sediment areas where kelp is absent (Riedman and Estes 1990, DeMaster et al. 1996). Kelp canopy is an important habitat component, used for foraging and resting (Riedman and Estes 1990). They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs. Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt. Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round. Sea Otters forage in rocky and soft-sediment communities on or near the ocean floor. The maximum confirmed depth of dive was 97 m (Newby 1975). Sea Otters are weakly territorial (Kenyon 1969) with fighting and aggression rare (Loughlin 1980). Only adult male Sea Otters establish territories. Males patrol territorial boundaries and attempt to exclude other adult males from the area. Females move freely between and among male territories. Groups of male and female Sea Otters generally rest separately. Sea Otter annual home ranges can occupy up to 0.8 km² (80 ha) and extend along 16 km of coastline (Kenyon 1969, Loughlin 1980). Typically, female Sea Otter home ranges are about 1.5-2 times larger than resident adult males during the breeding season; however, females have smaller annual or lifetime home ranges than males (Riedman and Estes 1990). Jameson (1989) found that territorial adult males occupied a mean home range of 40.3 ha during the summer-fall period (when home range size was considered equal to territory size); and mean coastline length was 1.1 km. Winter-spring mean home range size of territorial adult males that remained in female areas was 78.0 ha, with a mean coastline length of 2.16 km. The diet of Sea Otter consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other molluscs, crustaceans, and snails. Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets crabs and giant octopuses (Estes 1980). Sea urchins, abalones and rock crabs are the principal prey of Sea Otters in newly reoccupied habitats of central California (Vandevere, 1969). Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, Sea Otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type. In California, it has been noted that Sea Otters ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across. Often 50% of the diet of sea otter consisted of fish. The fish species eaten were usually bottom dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as the Red Irish Lord and Globefish (Estes 1980). They also consume mussels turban snails, squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, large barnacles, scallops, and sea stars (Wild and Ames 1974). Bivalve molluscs are excavated by digging in sand or mud bottoms and are the most common prey in soft-sediment communities (Calkins 1978). Male Sea Otters reach sexual maturity around age five or six, but probably do not become territorial or reproductively successful for two or three subsequent years (Riedman and Estes 1990). Most female Sea Otters are sexually mature at age four or five (Kenyon 1969, Jameson and Johnson 1993). Sea Otters apparently are polygynous, although the exact nature of the mating system may vary. Females normally give birth to a single pup that weighs 1.4 to 2.3 kg at birth (Riedman and Estes 1990). Twinning has been documented in sea otters (Williams et al. 1980); however, litters larger than one are rare, and when they occur, neither pup is likely to survive (Jameson and Bodkin 1986). Pups remain dependent upon their mothers for about six months (Jameson and Johnson 1993). Longevity in Sea Otters is estimated to be 15 to 20 years for females and 10 to 15 years for males (Riedman and Estes 1990).
Systems:	Terrestrial; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Throughout their range, Sea Otters use a variety of near shore marine environment usually in depths under 40 m and stay within a kilometer of the shore. Their classic association is with rocky substrates supporting kelp beds, but they also frequent soft-sediment areas where kelp is absent (Riedman and Estes 1990, DeMaster et al. 1996). Kelp canopy is an important habitat component, used for foraging and resting (Riedman and Estes 1990). They are found most often in areas with protection from the most severe ocean winds, such as rocky coastlines, thick kelp forests, and barrier reefs. Although they are most strongly associated with rocky substrates, sea otters can also live in areas where the sea floor consists primarily of mud, sand, or silt. Individuals generally occupy a home range a few kilometers long, and remain there year-round. Sea Otters forage in rocky and soft-sediment communities on or near the ocean floor. The maximum confirmed depth of dive was 97 m (Newby 1975).

Sea Otters are weakly territorial (Kenyon 1969) with fighting and aggression rare (Loughlin 1980). Only adult male Sea Otters establish territories. Males patrol territorial boundaries and attempt to exclude other adult males from the area. Females move freely between and among male territories. Groups of male and female Sea Otters generally rest separately. Sea Otter annual home ranges can occupy up to 0.8 km² (80 ha) and extend along 16 km of coastline (Kenyon 1969, Loughlin 1980). Typically, female Sea Otter home ranges are about 1.5-2 times larger than resident adult males during the breeding season; however, females have smaller annual or lifetime home ranges than males (Riedman and Estes 1990). Jameson (1989) found that territorial adult males occupied a mean home range of 40.3 ha during the summer-fall period (when home range size was considered equal to territory size); and mean coastline length was 1.1 km. Winter-spring mean home range size of territorial adult males that remained in female areas was 78.0 ha, with a mean coastline length of 2.16 km.

The diet of Sea Otter consists almost exclusively of marine invertebrates, including sea urchins, a variety of bivalves such as clams and mussels, abalone, other molluscs, crustaceans, and snails. Its prey ranges in size from tiny limpets crabs and giant octopuses (Estes 1980). Sea urchins, abalones and rock crabs are the principal prey of Sea Otters in newly reoccupied habitats of central California (Vandevere, 1969). Where prey such as sea urchins, clams, and abalone are present in a range of sizes, Sea Otters tend to select larger items over smaller ones of similar type. In California, it has been noted that Sea Otters ignore Pismo clams smaller than 3 inches (7 cm) across. Often 50% of the diet of sea otter consisted of fish. The fish species eaten were usually bottom dwelling and sedentary or sluggish forms, such as the Red Irish Lord and Globefish (Estes 1980). They also consume mussels turban snails, squid, octopus, chitons, tubeworms, large barnacles, scallops, and sea stars (Wild and Ames 1974). Bivalve molluscs are excavated by digging in sand or mud bottoms and are the most common prey in soft-sediment communities (Calkins 1978).

Male Sea Otters reach sexual maturity around age five or six, but probably do not become territorial or reproductively successful for two or three subsequent years (Riedman and Estes 1990). Most female Sea Otters are sexually mature at age four or five (Kenyon 1969, Jameson and Johnson 1993). Sea Otters apparently are polygynous, although the exact nature of the mating system may vary. Females normally give birth to a single pup that weighs 1.4 to 2.3 kg at birth (Riedman and Estes 1990). Twinning has been documented in sea otters (Williams et al. 1980); however, litters larger than one are rare, and when they occur, neither pup is likely to survive (Jameson and Bodkin 1986). Pups remain dependent upon their mothers for about six months (Jameson and Johnson 1993). Longevity in Sea Otters is estimated to be 15 to 20 years for females and 10 to 15 years for males (Riedman and Estes 1990).

Systems:

Terrestrial; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Oil spills are the greatest anthropogenic threat to Sea Otter (Geraci and Williams 1990). Sea Otters become hypothermic when oiled because oiled Sea Otter fur loses its insulative property and Sea Otters have no blubber layer, oil can be ingested while grooming, leading to gastrointestinal disorders, other ailments and death and volatile components of oil inhaled by Sea Otters can cause lung damage. Estimates of sea otter mortality following the Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound ranged from 2,650 (Garrott et al. 1993) to 3,905 (DeGange et al. 1994). Significant numbers of Sea Otters drowned in gill and trammel nets in California from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s (Estes 1990). Recent population declines in California’s Sea Otters may be incidental to summer commercial fisheries. Estes et al. (2003) found that Sea Otter mortality was elevated in the summer months and that commercial fin fish landings in the coastal live trap fishery increased. Recent analyses indicated annual Sea Otter carcass recoveries and reported fishery landings were significantly correlated. Thomas and Cole (1996) found 10% of southern Sea Otters they examined to be emaciated without specific cause of mortality. Severe weather and periodic climatic events such as El Niño can disrupt foraging behaviour and food availability, and increase pup loss. Under these circumstances, Sea Otters may find it difficult to meet their high metabolic needs, leading to malnutrition or starvation. Serious tooth wear in older Sea Otters may also contribute to mortality (Riedman and Estes 1990). Recent studies have found infectious disease to be an important mortality factor in California Sea Otter populations. Around 280 Sea Otters found dead have been linked “to a pair of protozoan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii and Sacrocystis neurona, that are known to breed in cats and opossums. Killer Whales (Orcinus orca), Great White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) have been documented as predators of Sea Otters (Riedman and Estes 1990). Predation by Killer Whales is one factor that is believed to have caused Sea Otter population declines across the Western Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (Doroff et al. 2003, Estes et al. 1998, Hatfield et al. 1998). Significant declines in preferred prey species populations - Northern Fur Seals (Callorhinus ursinus), Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina), and Steller Sea Lions (Eumetopias jubatus) are believed to have caused Killer Whales to prey switch and consume Sea Otters (Estes et al. 1998). Studies in Washington and elsewhere have shown that Sea Otter predation on sea urchins may indirectly enhance the growth of kelp and kelp-associated communities. Shellfish are important to commercial, recreational, and tribal fisheries in Washington and predation by Sea Otters in a specific area can be significant and result in localized fisheries management issues.

Major Threat(s):

Oil spills are the greatest anthropogenic threat to Sea Otter (Geraci and Williams 1990). Sea Otters become hypothermic when oiled because oiled Sea Otter fur loses its insulative property and Sea Otters have no blubber layer, oil can be ingested while grooming, leading to gastrointestinal disorders, other ailments and death and volatile components of oil inhaled by Sea Otters can cause lung damage. Estimates of sea otter mortality following the Exxon Valdez spill in Prince William Sound ranged from 2,650 (Garrott et al. 1993) to 3,905 (DeGange et al. 1994).

Significant numbers of Sea Otters drowned in gill and trammel nets in California from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s (Estes 1990). Recent population declines in California’s Sea Otters may be incidental to summer commercial fisheries. Estes et al. (2003) found that Sea Otter mortality was elevated in the summer months and that commercial fin fish landings in the coastal live trap fishery increased. Recent analyses indicated annual Sea Otter carcass recoveries and reported fishery landings were significantly correlated.

Thomas and Cole (1996) found 10% of southern Sea Otters they examined to be emaciated without specific cause of mortality. Severe weather and periodic climatic events such as El Niño can disrupt foraging behaviour and food availability, and increase pup loss. Under these circumstances, Sea Otters may find it difficult to meet their high metabolic needs, leading to malnutrition or starvation. Serious tooth wear in older Sea Otters may also contribute to mortality (Riedman and Estes 1990). Recent studies have found infectious disease to be an important mortality factor in California Sea Otter populations. Around 280 Sea Otters found dead have been linked “to a pair of protozoan parasites, Toxoplasma gondii and Sacrocystis neurona, that are known to breed in cats and opossums.

Killer Whales (Orcinus orca), Great White Sharks (Carcharodon carcharias), Bald Eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus), Coyotes (Canis latrans), and Brown Bears (Ursus arctos) have been documented as predators of Sea Otters (Riedman and Estes 1990). Predation by Killer Whales is one factor that is believed to have caused Sea Otter population declines across the Western Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands (Doroff et al. 2003, Estes et al. 1998, Hatfield et al. 1998). Significant declines in preferred prey species populations - Northern Fur Seals (Callorhinus ursinus), Harbour Seals (Phoca vitulina), and Steller Sea Lions (Eumetopias jubatus) are believed to have caused Killer Whales to prey switch and consume Sea Otters (Estes et al. 1998).

Studies in Washington and elsewhere have shown that Sea Otter predation on sea urchins may indirectly enhance the growth of kelp and kelp-associated communities. Shellfish are important to commercial, recreational, and tribal fisheries in Washington and predation by Sea Otters in a specific area can be significant and result in localized fisheries management issues.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Sea Otter is listed in Appendix I of the CITES. In the United States, sea otters are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (Act) and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The US Fish and Wildlife Service is the federal agency responsible for their conservation and management. The ESA also makes it illegal to buy, sell or possess any part of endangered species or items made from them. In addition, it also mandates that efforts must be made to recover the species, which means creating and implementing a plan for returning them to healthy population levels. Since 1997, the USFWS and the Alaska Sea Otter and Steller Sea Lion Commission (TASSC) have signed cooperative agreements authorized under Section 119 of the MMPA for the conservation and co-management of Sea Otters in Alaska. Each of the six TASSC regions has a regional management plan that includes harvest guidelines. In Canada, Sea Otters are protected and managed under the Species at Risk Act. Despite protection and various conservation measures, the Californian population has been slow to recover; a new Recovery Plan by the US Fish and Wildlife Service was currently being developed with the aim of managing damaging human activities to enable the population to recover to a point where it can be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. There have been several successful reintroduction attempts along the west coast of North America, restoring this highly appealing animal to much of its former range.

Conservation Actions:

Sea Otter is listed in Appendix I of the CITES. In the United States, sea otters are protected by the Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 (Act) and the Endangered Species Act of 1973. The US Fish and Wildlife Service is the federal agency responsible for their conservation and management. The ESA also makes it illegal to buy, sell or possess any part of endangered species or items made from them. In addition, it also mandates that efforts must be made to recover the species, which means creating and implementing a plan for returning them to healthy population levels.

Since 1997, the USFWS and the Alaska Sea Otter and Steller Sea Lion Commission (TASSC) have signed cooperative agreements authorized under Section 119 of the MMPA for the conservation and co-management of Sea Otters in Alaska. Each of the six TASSC regions has a regional management plan that includes harvest guidelines.

In Canada, Sea Otters are protected and managed under the Species at Risk Act. Despite protection and various conservation measures, the Californian population has been slow to recover; a new Recovery Plan by the US Fish and Wildlife Service was currently being developed with the aim of managing damaging human activities to enable the population to recover to a point where it can be removed from the List of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. There have been several successful reintroduction attempts along the west coast of North America, restoring this highly appealing animal to much of its former range.

Citation:	Doroff, A. & Burdin, A. 2008. Enhydra lutris. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 November 2009.
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