Anguilla anguilla

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	ACTINOPTERYGII	ANGUILLIFORMES	ANGUILLIDAE

Scientific Name:

Anguilla anguilla

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English

–

European Eel

Taxonomic Notes:

Other Anguilla species have occasionally been restocked in Europe, but none of these established a population. Pure A. rostrata's (American Eel) are confirmed, but very rare. Even from natural stocks. Additionally, European glass eels are almost always > 6 cm length, while all other species are < 6 cm (Dekker pers comm.). A. rostrata is distinguished from A. anguilla by having fewer vertebrae (102-112, usually 106-108, vs. 111-119, usually 114-116). Hybrids are known from Iceland (small stock) where there are pure rostrata, but more anguilla.

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Critically Endangered A2bd+4bd ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2008

Assessor/s

Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M.

Evaluator/s:

Wickström, H. & Smith, K. (IUCN Freshwater Biodiversity Unit)

Justification:
The species has undergone a sharp decline in both recruitment and yield and stock. Recruitment of glass eels has declined since 1980 and since 2000 is at an historical low at just 1-5% of the pre-1980 levels. Yield and stock abundance has declined since the 1960s. As the recruitment rate is so low the population is continuing to decline as older eels disappear from the stock. According to the FAO global catch landings, which cannot be directly linked to population due to stocking and harvest effort (though scientific evidence supports this decline) have also declined. In 2005 only 4,855 tonnes were caught, a decline of 76% since a harvest peak in 1968 (three generations = 60 years). The recent decline in recruitment will translate into a future decline in adult stock, at least for the coming two decades (ICES 2006). Noting the longevity of this species, and the extremely depleted state, restoration of the stock is expected to take several generations (Astrom and Dekker 2007), from 60 to 200 years depending on the protection level. Temporary increases (10-15 years) in abundance following the implementation of protective measures thus do not guarantee ultimate recovery, if not severely protecting the stock (Dekker pers. comm.).

The species has many threats, the level of harvest of the species is unsustainable (according to the International Council for the Exploration of the Seas), an introduced parasite (nematode Anguillicola crassus) from introduced eels from Japan is suspected to impact the ability of the eels to reach the spawning grounds. Dam construction (for hydropower) is also a threat by blocking migration routes and also causes high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by the turbines. Pollution, loss of wetlands and climate change are also potential threats to the species.

Although a reliable population decline in mature individuals is not known, it is inferred that there has been a decline of over 80% in the past three generations (60 years) based on the massive decline in recruitment (95% in 24 years) and also supported by the decline catch landings of 76% between 1968 and 2005. This is decline is likely to continue. Full and immediate protection are required and ICES have recommend that a recovery plan be developed for the whole stock on an urgent basis.

Action has been taken at the international level, but the impacts of which won't be felt for many years. CITES listed the species in Appendix II, in 2007 (doesn't come into force until March 2009) and will require exporting states to have an export permit which can only be issued if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. Also the EC has issued a Regulation requiring all member states to produce eel management plans amongst other measures. The management plans have to be in place by July 2009 and have the objective to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences].

History:

2006

–

Not Evaluated (IUCN 2006)

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	All European rivers draining to Mediterranean, North and Baltic Seas, in the Atlantic south to Canary Islands and parts of Mediterranean Northern Africa and Asia. Very rarely entering White and Barents Seas, recorded eastward to Pechora. Low abundance in Black Sea (migrating east to Kuban drainage), northern Scandinavia and eastern Europe, though trap-and-transport stocking has interfered. Occasional individuals reach Volga drainage through canals. Stocked in most inland waters (in addition to natural recruitement). Large parts of the population remain at sea (northwestern Atlantic and Mediterranean).
Countries:	Native: Albania; Algeria; Andorra; Austria; Belarus; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Bulgaria; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Egypt; Estonia; Faroe Islands; Finland; France; Georgia; Germany; Gibraltar; Greece; Guernsey; Holy See (Vatican City State); Iceland; Ireland; Isle of Man; Israel; Italy; Jersey; Latvia; Lebanon; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Moldova; Monaco; Montenegro; Morocco; Netherlands; Norway; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Poland; Portugal; Romania; Russian Federation; San Marino; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Tunisia; Turkey; Ukraine; United Kingdom
Range Map:	(click map to view full version)

Population [top]

Population:	Glass eels: Since the early 1980's, a steady and almost continent wide decline of 90% has been observed in the recruitment of glass (juvenile) eels (Dekker 2003), and according to ICES and FAO (2006) recruitment reached an historical low in 2001 of 1 to 2% of the pre-1980 level, it has not improved since and is an indication that the reproduction is seriously impaired and that the stock is severely depleted. In most recent years, no substantial recovery in recruitment has been observed (Dekker 2007). Yellow/silver eels: ICES and FAO (2006) states that even though there is no analytical assessment of the state of [continental] European eel stock, all available information indicates that the stock is at a historical minimum in most of the distribution area and continues to decline. A total continental stock assessment cannot be made as it is harder to monitor, being scattered over millions of rivers, lakes, estuaries, etc. (Dekker 2000). However, even though catch effort can be variable and underreporting of landings is a serious problem in most European countries, trends in the reported catch data will to some extent reflect true changes in fishing yields. According to FAO global capture statistics (exploited at all stages of their freshwater life), capture peaked in 1968 with 20,278 tonnes, in 1975 this had dropped to 16,110 tonnes, in 1985 it was 12,665 tonnes, 1995 8,706 tonnes and the most recent available figure in 2005 was 5,059 tonnes a decline of 76% since the peak in 1968. This is supported by the possibly only long-term scientific data [from Lake Ijsselmeer in the Netherlands] where there has been a gradual decline since 1960 (Dekker 2004a). All European catches have decreased, possibly because the eel fishery was developed over this period. In Norway the catches seem to be stable. (ICES 2002). As the recruitment rate is so low and declining the population is continuing to decline as older eels dissapear from the stock.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Population:

Glass eels:
Since the early 1980's, a steady and almost continent wide decline of 90% has been observed in the recruitment of glass (juvenile) eels (Dekker 2003), and according to ICES and FAO (2006) recruitment reached an historical low in 2001 of 1 to 2% of the pre-1980 level, it has not improved since and is an indication that the reproduction is seriously impaired and that the stock is severely depleted. In most recent years, no substantial recovery in recruitment has been observed (Dekker 2007).

Yellow/silver eels:
ICES and FAO (2006) states that even though there is no analytical assessment of the state of [continental] European eel stock, all available information indicates that the stock is at a historical minimum in most of the distribution area and continues to decline. A total continental stock assessment cannot be made as it is harder to monitor, being scattered over millions of rivers, lakes, estuaries, etc. (Dekker 2000). However, even though catch effort can be variable and underreporting of landings is a serious problem in most European countries, trends in the reported catch data will to some extent reflect true changes in fishing yields. According to FAO global capture statistics (exploited at all stages of their freshwater life), capture peaked in 1968 with 20,278 tonnes, in 1975 this had dropped to 16,110 tonnes, in 1985 it was 12,665 tonnes, 1995 8,706 tonnes and the most recent available figure in 2005 was 5,059 tonnes a decline of 76% since the peak in 1968. This is supported by the possibly only long-term scientific data [from Lake Ijsselmeer in the Netherlands] where there has been a gradual decline since 1960 (Dekker 2004a). All European catches have decreased, possibly because the eel fishery was developed over this period. In Norway the catches seem to be stable. (ICES 2002).

As the recruitment rate is so low and declining the population is continuing to decline as older eels dissapear from the stock.

Population Trend:

Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Habitat: All types of benthic habitats from small streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. Naturally only in water bodies connected to sea, stocked elsewhere. Assumed to spawn only in Sargasso Sea, in western subtropical Atlantic (about 26°N 60°W). Spawning area is elliptic, about 2,000 km wide. Biology: Catadromous. Spawning peaks at beginning of March, continuing until July. No concrete data about spawning sites. Adults probably die after spawning. The mechanisms by which leptocephali reach European coasts are not well understood. Leptocephali reach the continental slope at about 70 mm and metamorphose into glass-eels (almost adult appearance, but transparent body), which enter estuaries. Glass-eels are observed in autumn on Portuguese coasts, in winter in North Sea and in spring. The generation length of the species ranges from 2 to 50 years, with a typical mean of 20 (Dekker pers comm.). Females are twice the size and age of males).
Systems:	Freshwater; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Habitat:
All types of benthic habitats from small streams to shores of large rivers and lakes. Naturally only in water bodies connected to sea, stocked elsewhere. Assumed to spawn only in Sargasso Sea, in western subtropical Atlantic (about 26°N 60°W). Spawning area is elliptic, about 2,000 km wide.

Biology:
Catadromous. Spawning peaks at beginning of March, continuing until July. No concrete data about spawning sites. Adults probably die after spawning. The mechanisms by which leptocephali reach European coasts are not well understood. Leptocephali reach the continental slope at about 70 mm and metamorphose into glass-eels (almost adult appearance, but transparent body), which enter estuaries. Glass-eels are observed in autumn on Portuguese coasts, in winter in North Sea and in spring. The generation length of the species ranges from 2 to 50 years, with a typical mean of 20 (Dekker pers comm.). Females are twice the size and age of males).

Systems:

Freshwater; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The causes of the declining recruitment rates are still unclear (Dekker 2007). There are many hypotheses: The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may have reduced larval survival and/or growth rate (Castonguay et al. 1994). However, Dekker (2004b) shows that the NAO index correlation is strong for growth rate but weak for glass eel numbers (in 2000 the NAO index returned to normal but recruitment still declined). Overfishing for glass eels (mainly in France, Spain, Portugal and UK) and downstream migrating eels (silver eels) across Europe (Dekker pers comm.). The demand from Asia and Europe for glass eels is huge and the price is increasing (750 Euro per kilo 2006 from around 100 Euro in 1990.). According the ICES stock advice for Anguilla anguilla (2005) the current fishery is not sustainable, and recommend that a recovery plan be developed for the whole stock on an urgent basis. Also there is an introduced parasite (nematode Anguillicola crassus) species, from introduced eels from Japan which is suspected to impact the ability of the eels to reach the spawning grounds. Dam construction (for hydropower and water management) is also a threat, blocking migration routes but also causes high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by the turbines. Climate change may have an impact upon the breeding grounds (Sargasso Sea). Also the increasing number of predators in particular cormorants across Europe may have an impact.

Major Threat(s):

The causes of the declining recruitment rates are still unclear (Dekker 2007). There are many hypotheses:

The North Atlantic Oscillation (NAO) may have reduced larval survival and/or growth rate (Castonguay et al. 1994). However, Dekker (2004b) shows that the NAO index correlation is strong for growth rate but weak for glass eel numbers (in 2000 the NAO index returned to normal but recruitment still declined).

Overfishing for glass eels (mainly in France, Spain, Portugal and UK) and downstream migrating eels (silver eels) across Europe (Dekker pers comm.). The demand from Asia and Europe for glass eels is huge and the price is increasing (750 Euro per kilo 2006 from around 100 Euro in 1990.). According the ICES stock advice for Anguilla anguilla (2005) the current fishery is not sustainable, and recommend that a recovery plan be developed for the whole stock on an urgent basis.

Also there is an introduced parasite (nematode Anguillicola crassus) species, from introduced eels from Japan which is suspected to impact the ability of the eels to reach the spawning grounds.

Dam construction (for hydropower and water management) is also a threat, blocking migration routes but also causes high mortality rate as the downstream migrating eels are killed by the turbines.

Climate change may have an impact upon the breeding grounds (Sargasso Sea).

Also the increasing number of predators in particular cormorants across Europe may have an impact.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	The majority of 'conservation' measures historically in place for the eel were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels and sustainable income for fishing communities and not increase recruitment. In 2007 two major multi-lateral bodies recognised the state of the European eel and acted upon it. The European Council (EC) Regulation No 1100/2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eel was published in September 2007. This requires, by 1 July 2009, all member states that contain natural habitats of the European Eel to establish eel management plans at a river basin scale. The objective of these plans is to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences], through various measures including reducing commercial and recreational fisheries, restocking, measures to improve habitats and make rivers passable, transportation of silver eels to the sea and monitor eel status in each basin. The regulations also require that by 31 July 2013 60% of eels less than 12cm in length caught annually should be reserved for restocking [and not aquaculture etc], over a 5 year period starting from 1 July 2009 catches or fishing effort of eels in coastal and sea waters [i.e. beyond river basin plan] should be reduced by at least 50% [of average between 2004-2006], and a control and monitoring system be set up by each member state. The European Eel was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007. The listing will come into effect on 13 March 2009, after which time all Parties to the Convention will be required to issue permits for all exports of the species. An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. In the European Union, which includes 24 eel range States, CITES is implemented through Council Regulation 338/97 and Commission Regulation 865/2006 which require both import and export permits to be issued for species listed in Annex B of the Regulation (Annex B contains most CITES Appendix II species). In the case of specimens introduced from the sea, a certificate has to be issued by the Management Authority of the State into which the specimens are being brought, for species listed in Appendix I or II.

Conservation Actions:

The majority of 'conservation' measures historically in place for the eel were set up and controlled at local and national level. Their aims are often securing fishing rights, supporting local stock levels and sustainable income for fishing communities and not increase recruitment.

In 2007 two major multi-lateral bodies recognised the state of the European eel and acted upon it.

The European Council (EC) Regulation No 1100/2007 establishing measures for the recovery of the stock of European Eel was published in September 2007. This requires, by 1 July 2009, all member states that contain natural habitats of the European Eel to establish eel management plans at a river basin scale. The objective of these plans is to permit the escapement to the sea of at least 40% of the silver eel biomass [relative to the estimated stock levels in the absence of human influences], through various measures including reducing commercial and recreational fisheries, restocking, measures to improve habitats and make rivers passable, transportation of silver eels to the sea and monitor eel status in each basin. The regulations also require that by 31 July 2013 60% of eels less than 12cm in length caught annually should be reserved for restocking [and not aquaculture etc], over a 5 year period starting from 1 July 2009 catches or fishing effort of eels in coastal and sea waters [i.e. beyond river basin plan] should be reduced by at least 50% [of average between 2004-2006], and a control and monitoring system be set up by each member state.

The European Eel was listed in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) in June 2007. The listing will come into effect on 13 March 2009, after which time all Parties to the Convention will be required to issue permits for all exports of the species. An export permit may be issued only if the specimen was legally obtained and if the export will not be detrimental to the survival of the species. In the European Union, which includes 24 eel range States, CITES is implemented through Council Regulation 338/97 and Commission Regulation 865/2006 which require both import and export permits to be issued for species listed in Annex B of the Regulation (Annex B contains most CITES Appendix II species). In the case of specimens introduced from the sea, a certificate has to be issued by the Management Authority of the State into which the specimens are being brought, for species listed in Appendix I or II.

Citation:	Freyhof, J. & Kottelat, M. 2008. Anguilla anguilla. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 November 2009.
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