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Spheniscus humboldti

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family
ANIMALIA CHORDATA AVES Sphenisciformes Spheniscidae

Scientific Name: Spheniscus humboldti
Species Authority: Meyen, 1834
Common Name/s:
English – Humboldt Penguin, Peruvian Penguin
Spanish – Pingüino De Humboldt

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria: Vulnerable   A2bcde+3bcde+4bcde; C1+2b   ver 3.1
Year Assessed: 2008
Assessor/s BirdLife International
Evaluator/s: Bird, J., Butchart, S. & Frere, E. (BirdLife International Red List Authority)
Justification:
This species has undergone extreme population size fluctuations, close to one order of magnitude at major colonies in Chile. However, an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicates that there is probably an ongoing, underlying rapid decline in numbers. It consequently qualifies as Vulnerable.

History:
2005 – Vulnerable
2004 – Vulnerable
2000 – Vulnerable
1994 – Lower Risk/near threatened
1988 – Threatened

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description: Spheniscus humboldti occurs in coastal Peru and Chile with vagrants recorded north to Colombia7. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,0803,4,5. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds1. The 1997-1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds6. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 19963, but had recovered to six by 19998. In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies13. A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds14. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the North and central coastal areas in 199913. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently3. Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Chañaral Island. A repeat visit to Chañaral in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting15. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years1.

Countries:
Native:
Chile; Peru
Vagrant:
Colombia; Ecuador
FAO Marine Fishing Areas:
Native:
Pacific – southeast
Range Map:
(click map to view full version)
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Population [top]

Population: Cheney (1998), P. Majluf in litt. (1999)

Population Trend: Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology: It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves1,3. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation11. Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile1, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)11. There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru2,12, and occasionally over 600 km 2,12. It feeds on schooling anchoveta Engraulis ringens, squid and others small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders traveling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years 16.

Systems: Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s): The primary threats for this species are mortality caused by entanglement in artisanal fishery nets, illegal capture for consumption and the pet trade14. Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano10. Guano is still "harvested" in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat11. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks1,10,12. Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fisherman, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution1,3, 15.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions: Conservation actions underway:

CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile, there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected1,9. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction14. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan1,6.

Conservation actions proposed:

Monitor the population throughout its breeding range3. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting3. Create marine reserves around colonies3. Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch3, 14. Reduce fish harvests around major colonies14 and elsewhere during ENSO events3. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions3.

Citation: BirdLife International 2008. Spheniscus humboldti. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 09 February 2010.
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