Spheniscus demersus

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	Sphenisciformes	Spheniscidae

Scientific Name:

Spheniscus demersus

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	African Penguin, Black-footed Penguin, Jackass Penguin
French	–	Manchot Du Cap
Spanish	–	Pingüino Del Cabo

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Vulnerable A2ace+3ce+4ace ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2008

Assessor/s

BirdLife International

Evaluator/s:

Butchart, S. & Taylor, J. (BirdLife International Red List Authority)

Justification:
This species is classified as Vulnerable because it is undergoing a rapid population decline, probably as a result of commercial fisheries and shifts in prey populations. A catastrophic oilspill in 2000 affected c.40% of the population, but resulted in the world's biggest seabird rescue operation.

History:

2005	–	Vulnerable
2004	–	Vulnerable
2000	–	Vulnerable
1994	–	Lower Risk/near threatened
1988	–	Threatened

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Spheniscus demersus breeds at 25 islands and four mainland sites in Namibia and South Africa¹⁶. It has been recorded as far north as Gabon and Mozambique¹⁷. Breeding on Neglectus Island, Namibia, was confirmed in 2001, following the absence of confirmed breeding since 1952 at least, and an increase in numbers since 1995⁶. In 2003, there were thought to be 11 breeding pairs on the island⁶. In the 1980s, the species colonised Stony Point and Boulders Beach on the South African mainland, and recolonised Robben Island⁸. Immigration to mainland sites in recent years has been attributed to an eastward shift in the species's prey populations^12,13. Just seven islands now support 80% of the global population. Its population at the beginning of the 21st century had fallen to about 10% of its numbers 100 years before. The total population was estimated at 141,000 pairs in 1956-1957, 69,000 pairs in 1979-1980, 57,000 pairs in 2004-2005 and 36,000 pairs in 2006-2007¹⁶. This represents a decline of 2.69% per year since 1956, or a decrease of 56% over three generations (based on a generation length of 10 years). However, an exponential model fitted to the data since 1978-1979 indicates a decline of 35% over the three most recent 10-year generations¹⁶.
Countries:	Native: Angola; Mozambique; Namibia; South Africa Vagrant: Congo; Gabon
FAO Marine Fishing Areas:	Native: Atlantic – southeast; Indian Ocean – western
Range Map:	(click map to view full version)

Population [top]

Population:	The total population was estimated at c.36,000 pairs in 2006-2007 (Kemper et al. 2007), thus the figure used here is 72,000 mature individuals.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	It is usually found within 40 km of the shore, coming onshore to a variety of coastal habitats to breed, moult and rest. It usually feeds within 12 km of the coastline¹⁶, on pelagic school-fish including sardine Sardinops sagax and anchovy Engraulis capensis. Nest-burrows in guano are usually dug colonially, although the species is now forced to nest in the open due to the past harvesting of guano¹⁵. The average age at first breeding is thought to be 4-6 years⁷. The adults are sedentary, but on gaining independence, juveniles disperse far from their colonies, with those from the east heading west, and those from the west and south moving north¹⁷. Most birds later return to their natal colony to moult and breed¹⁷.
Systems:	Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

It is usually found within 40 km of the shore, coming onshore to a variety of coastal habitats to breed, moult and rest. It usually feeds within 12 km of the coastline¹⁶, on pelagic school-fish including sardine Sardinops sagax and anchovy Engraulis capensis. Nest-burrows in guano are usually dug colonially, although the species is now forced to nest in the open due to the past harvesting of guano¹⁵. The average age at first breeding is thought to be 4-6 years⁷. The adults are sedentary, but on gaining independence, juveniles disperse far from their colonies, with those from the east heading west, and those from the west and south moving north¹⁷. Most birds later return to their natal colony to moult and breed¹⁷.

Systems:

Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Population declines are largely attributed to food shortages, resulting from large catches of fish by commercial purse-seine fisheries, and environmental fluctuations. An eastward shift in sardine and anchovy populations is also blamed, with the biomass of these species near the largest breeding islands west of Cape Town falling sharply since 2002¹². The abundance of these prey species is known to influence breeding success, which may often be too low to maintain population equilibrium¹⁴. Human disturbance and egg-collecting appear to have been additional factors in the species's declines². Mortality from oilspills is serious and may increase if proposed development of harbours close to colonies proceeds. In addition, most of the population is confined to just two areas, both near to major shipping ports⁵. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of birds oiled since 1990: two individual oil spills (in 1994 and 2000) have killed 30,000 individuals, despite successful rehabilitation programmes⁵. In addition, breeding success on Robben island fell to 0.23 chicks per pair in 2000, compared with an average of 0.62 ±0.19 over the other 15 years from 1989 to 2004¹⁴. Without continuing rehabilitation, the population is set to decrease 17-51% over the next 20 years⁵. However, rehabilitation does not necessarily prevent problems in the years after a spill. During 2001-2005, pairs involving at least one bird rehabilitated from the oil spill in 2000 achieved lower fledging success (43%), mostly owing to higher mortality in older chicks, compared to unaffected pairs (61%) and those involving at least one bird affected by a previous oil spill (71%)⁹. This may indicate physiological or behavioural problems that reduce the parents' ability to meet the food requirements of older chicks, perhaps owing to the toxicity of the heavy oil in the 2000 spill, or the effects of prolonged captivity and time between oiling and washing⁹. Guano collection has historically been a major cause of disturbance at many colonies and its removal has deprived penguins of nest-burrowing sites, causing heat stress and abandonment of nests, flooding of nests by rain and increased predation. The Cape Fur Seal Arctocephalus pusillus competes with penguins for food, displaces them from breeding sites and is a periodic predator. Limited mortality in fishing nets may increase if gill-nets are set near colonies². Recently the potentially major effects of individual storms on breeding colonies at certain sites has been highlighted⁴. Sharks take birds at sea and Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus and feral cats prey on eggs and chicks at colonies¹.

Major Threat(s):

Population declines are largely attributed to food shortages, resulting from large catches of fish by commercial purse-seine fisheries, and environmental fluctuations. An eastward shift in sardine and anchovy populations is also blamed, with the biomass of these species near the largest breeding islands west of Cape Town falling sharply since 2002¹². The abundance of these prey species is known to influence breeding success, which may often be too low to maintain population equilibrium¹⁴. Human disturbance and egg-collecting appear to have been additional factors in the species's declines². Mortality from oilspills is serious and may increase if proposed development of harbours close to colonies proceeds. In addition, most of the population is confined to just two areas, both near to major shipping ports⁵. There has been a dramatic increase in the number of birds oiled since 1990: two individual oil spills (in 1994 and 2000) have killed 30,000 individuals, despite successful rehabilitation programmes⁵. In addition, breeding success on Robben island fell to 0.23 chicks per pair in 2000, compared with an average of 0.62 ±0.19 over the other 15 years from 1989 to 2004¹⁴. Without continuing rehabilitation, the population is set to decrease 17-51% over the next 20 years⁵. However, rehabilitation does not necessarily prevent problems in the years after a spill. During 2001-2005, pairs involving at least one bird rehabilitated from the oil spill in 2000 achieved lower fledging success (43%), mostly owing to higher mortality in older chicks, compared to unaffected pairs (61%) and those involving at least one bird affected by a previous oil spill (71%)⁹. This may indicate physiological or behavioural problems that reduce the parents' ability to meet the food requirements of older chicks, perhaps owing to the toxicity of the heavy oil in the 2000 spill, or the effects of prolonged captivity and time between oiling and washing⁹. Guano collection has historically been a major cause of disturbance at many colonies and its removal has deprived penguins of nest-burrowing sites, causing heat stress and abandonment of nests, flooding of nests by rain and increased predation. The Cape Fur Seal Arctocephalus pusillus competes with penguins for food, displaces them from breeding sites and is a periodic predator. Limited mortality in fishing nets may increase if gill-nets are set near colonies². Recently the potentially major effects of individual storms on breeding colonies at certain sites has been highlighted⁴. Sharks take birds at sea and Kelp Gulls Larus dominicanus and feral cats prey on eggs and chicks at colonies¹.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation actions underway: CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. In South Africa, all breeding localities are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. Collection of guano and eggs is prohibited within penguin colonies³. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with great success⁵. More than 80% of birds admitted for rehabilitation are returned successfully to the wild⁵. In one study it was found that the age at first breeding of five oiled and rehabilitated birds did not differ significantly from populations on Robben and Dassen Islands⁷. Since 1995 there has been a captive breeding programme at an aquarium in Cape Town, where around six birds are bred annually, and a total of 14 have been released nearby¹⁰. This programme has contributed to public awareness and education¹⁰. Research into feeding behaviour involving the use of satellite-tracking and transponders is ongoing¹¹. On Dyer Island, the effects of guano collection in the past are being mitigated by the installation of small fiberglass igloos as nest-sites, with 200 put in place by 2006 and an eventual target of 2,000, roughly one for every pair in the colony¹⁵. These artificial nest-sites are used by pairs very soon after installation, and if the programme is successful it will be expanded to other colonies in South Africa¹⁵. Conservation actions proposed: Monitor population trends at all colonies². Continue and maintain the SANCCOB oil spill rehabilitation centre. Initiate research into the impacts of fishing and predation². Protect Namibian breeding localities². Develop plans to conserve pelagic fish resources³, namely through management of the purse-seine fishery¹⁴. Prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks³. Eliminate feral cats from Bird, Dassen and Robben Islands and implement measures to preclude the introduction of rats to any colonies^2,14. Investigate reintroduction techniques². Assess whether climate change is a factor in the shifting of prey populations¹¹. Consider the idea of establishing no-fishing zones around breeding islands^11,13. Consider translocating birds in reaction to shifts in food availability¹³. Maintain suitable breeding habitat¹⁴. Control the spread of disease¹⁴.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation actions underway:

CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. In South Africa, all breeding localities are national parks, nature reserves or otherwise protected. Collection of guano and eggs is prohibited within penguin colonies³. Oiled birds are rehabilitated with great success⁵. More than 80% of birds admitted for rehabilitation are returned successfully to the wild⁵. In one study it was found that the age at first breeding of five oiled and rehabilitated birds did not differ significantly from populations on Robben and Dassen Islands⁷. Since 1995 there has been a captive breeding programme at an aquarium in Cape Town, where around six birds are bred annually, and a total of 14 have been released nearby¹⁰. This programme has contributed to public awareness and education¹⁰. Research into feeding behaviour involving the use of satellite-tracking and transponders is ongoing¹¹. On Dyer Island, the effects of guano collection in the past are being mitigated by the installation of small fiberglass igloos as nest-sites, with 200 put in place by 2006 and an eventual target of 2,000, roughly one for every pair in the colony¹⁵. These artificial nest-sites are used by pairs very soon after installation, and if the programme is successful it will be expanded to other colonies in South Africa¹⁵.

Conservation actions proposed:

Monitor population trends at all colonies². Continue and maintain the SANCCOB oil spill rehabilitation centre. Initiate research into the impacts of fishing and predation². Protect Namibian breeding localities². Develop plans to conserve pelagic fish resources³, namely through management of the purse-seine fishery¹⁴. Prevent oilspills from illegal cleaning of ship tanks³. Eliminate feral cats from Bird, Dassen and Robben Islands and implement measures to preclude the introduction of rats to any colonies^2,14. Investigate reintroduction techniques². Assess whether climate change is a factor in the shifting of prey populations¹¹. Consider the idea of establishing no-fishing zones around breeding islands^11,13. Consider translocating birds in reaction to shifts in food availability¹³. Maintain suitable breeding habitat¹⁴. Control the spread of disease¹⁴.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2008. Spheniscus demersus. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 08 November 2009.
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