Sterna hirundo

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	Charadriiformes	Laridae

Scientific Name:

Sterna hirundo

Species Authority:

Linnaeus, 1758

Common Name/s:

English	–	Common Tern
French	–	Sterne Pierregarin

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2009

Assessor/s

BirdLife International

Evaluator/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S.(BirdLife International)

Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

History:

2008	–	Least Concern
2004	–	Least Concern
2000	–	Lower Risk/least concern
1994	–	Lower Risk/least concern
1988	–	Lower Risk/least concern

Geographic Range [top]

Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Angola; Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina; Armenia; Aruba; Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahamas; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Barbados; Belarus; Belgium; Belize; Benin; Bermuda; Bhutan; Bolivia; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Brazil; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria; Cambodia; Cameroon; Canada; Cape Verde; Cayman Islands; Chile; China; Colombia; Congo; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Costa Rica; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cuba; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; Egypt; El Salvador; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Estonia; Falkland Islands (Malvinas); Faroe Islands; Fiji; Finland; France; French Guiana; Gabon; Gambia; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guam; Guatemala; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Guyana; Haiti; Honduras; Hong Kong; Hungary; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Liberia; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Madagascar; Malaysia; Mali; Malta; Marshall Islands; Martinique; Mauritania; Mauritius; Mexico; Micronesia, Federated States of; Moldova; Mongolia; Montenegro; Montserrat; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; Netherlands Antilles; New Caledonia; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Northern Mariana Islands; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Palau; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Peru; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Puerto Rico; Qatar; Réunion; Romania; Russian Federation; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Singapore; Slovakia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Suriname; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Togo; Trinidad and Tobago; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Turks and Caicos Islands; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; United States; Uruguay; Uzbekistan; Vanuatu; Venezuela; Viet Nam; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S.; Western Sahara; Yemen Vagrant: Cocos (Keeling) Islands; Comoros; Cook Islands; Iceland; Liechtenstein; Malawi; Maldives; New Zealand; Zambia Presence uncertain: Jamaica

Countries:

Native:

Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Angola; Anguilla; Antigua and Barbuda; Argentina; Armenia; Aruba; Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahamas; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Barbados; Belarus; Belgium; Belize; Benin; Bermuda; Bhutan; Bolivia; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Brazil; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria; Cambodia; Cameroon; Canada; Cape Verde; Cayman Islands; Chile; China; Colombia; Congo; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Costa Rica; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cuba; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Ecuador; Egypt; El Salvador; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Estonia; Falkland Islands (Malvinas); Faroe Islands; Fiji; Finland; France; French Guiana; Gabon; Gambia; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Grenada; Guadeloupe; Guam; Guatemala; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Guyana; Haiti; Honduras; Hong Kong; Hungary; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Liberia; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Madagascar; Malaysia; Mali; Malta; Marshall Islands; Martinique; Mauritania; Mauritius; Mexico; Micronesia, Federated States of; Moldova; Mongolia; Montenegro; Montserrat; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; Netherlands Antilles; New Caledonia; Nicaragua; Nigeria; Northern Mariana Islands; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Palau; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Peru; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Puerto Rico; Qatar; Réunion; Romania; Russian Federation; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; Singapore; Slovakia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Suriname; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Togo; Trinidad and Tobago; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Turks and Caicos Islands; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; United States; Uruguay; Uzbekistan; Vanuatu; Venezuela; Viet Nam; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S.; Western Sahara; Yemen

Vagrant:

Cocos (Keeling) Islands; Comoros; Cook Islands; Iceland; Liechtenstein; Malawi; Maldives; New Zealand; Zambia

Presence uncertain:

Jamaica

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour This species is strongly migratory^{1, 3}. It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs (inland colonies often smaller and more widely-dispersed than coastal ones)¹. Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April¹. The species may moult on arrival in its the wintering grounds (e.g. the Caribbean), during which it may become vulnerable to human exploitation⁹. It is gregarious throughout year³ and shoals of fish may attract dense feeding flocks, although it otherwise feeds singly or in small loose groups^{1, 3}. Most individuals forage 5-10 km from breeding colonies, occasionally feeding at sea 15 km offshore¹. Habitat Breeding The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m¹. Along the coast it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands³, open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits^{1, 3}, vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in estuaries¹and coastal lagoons³, saltmarshes^{2, 3}, mainland peninsulas³ and grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs¹. Inland it may nest in similar habitats including sand or shingle lakes shores², shingle banks in rivers³, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in lakes and rivers^{1, 3}, sand- or gravel-pits^{2, 3}, marshes, ponds, grassy areas and patches of dredged soil³. Non-breeding The species winters on sheltered coastal waters⁴, estuaries and along large rivers, occupying harbours, jetties, piers, beaches¹ and coastal wetlands including lagoons, rivers, lakes, swamps and saltworks, mangroves and saltmarshes⁴. During this season it roosts on unvegetated sandy beaches, shores of estuaries or lagoons, sandbars and rocky shores⁴. Diet The species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects¹. Breeding site The nest is a shallow depression on open substrates with little or no vegetation placed near a vertical object (e.g. rock, shell, plant or artefact) to provide shelter for chicks and to facilitate nest identification¹. Nest sites include the edges of bare sand amongst vegetation, rocks or logs, open areas on the margins of vegetation on beaches, the edges of mats of vegetation in marshes¹, and grassy or rocky substrates on rocky islets¹. The species will also readily nest on artificial rafts¹. Management information Management techniques used to increase the breeding numbers and reproductive success of the species in the Great Lakes region of North America include creating artificial nesting sites, vegetation management, enhancement of existing nesting habitat, using models and vocalisation to attract breeding pairs and predator control (e.g. mammal-exclusion, destruction of gull nests, direct predator removal, or preventative measures against gull nesting)⁶. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites¹². The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites¹². Artificial nesting rafts have proved effective in promoting breeding success in areas where there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat or where human disturbance is a particular threat (1996)¹. Using fire to expose the ground surface in areas where vegetation succession is proceeding too far towards closed vegetation stages has been successful in some areas¹¹. Culling predatory gulls can be an effective management tool to enhance breeding productivity¹³, although some management plans recommend non-lethal harassment techniques that target gulls (e.g. egg and nest destruction, conspicuous human observers, gull displacement walks, and pyrotechnics) to reduce predation on nesting colonies rather then cullling¹⁴.
Systems:	Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour This species is strongly migratory^{1, 3}. It breeds between April and June in solitary pairs or colonially in groups of up to several thousand pairs (inland colonies often smaller and more widely-dispersed than coastal ones)¹. Palearctic breeders migrate south after breeding between August and October, returning to the breeding grounds in March or April¹. The species may moult on arrival in its the wintering grounds (e.g. the Caribbean), during which it may become vulnerable to human exploitation⁹. It is gregarious throughout year³ and shoals of fish may attract dense feeding flocks, although it otherwise feeds singly or in small loose groups^{1, 3}. Most individuals forage 5-10 km from breeding colonies, occasionally feeding at sea 15 km offshore¹. Habitat Breeding The species breeds in a wide variety of habitats in coastal and inland areas from sea-level to heights of greater than 4,000 m¹. Along the coast it shows a preference for nesting on flat rock surfaces on inshore islands³, open shingle and sandy beaches, dunes and spits^{1, 3}, vegetated inter-dune areas, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in estuaries¹and coastal lagoons³, saltmarshes^{2, 3}, mainland peninsulas³ and grassy plateaus atop coastal cliffs¹. Inland it may nest in similar habitats including sand or shingle lakes shores², shingle banks in rivers³, sandy, rocky, shell-strewn or well-vegetated islands in lakes and rivers^{1, 3}, sand- or gravel-pits^{2, 3}, marshes, ponds, grassy areas and patches of dredged soil³. Non-breeding The species winters on sheltered coastal waters⁴, estuaries and along large rivers, occupying harbours, jetties, piers, beaches¹ and coastal wetlands including lagoons, rivers, lakes, swamps and saltworks, mangroves and saltmarshes⁴. During this season it roosts on unvegetated sandy beaches, shores of estuaries or lagoons, sandbars and rocky shores⁴. Diet The species is opportunistic, its diet consisting predominantly of small fish and occasionally planktonic crustaceans and insects¹. Breeding site The nest is a shallow depression on open substrates with little or no vegetation placed near a vertical object (e.g. rock, shell, plant or artefact) to provide shelter for chicks and to facilitate nest identification¹. Nest sites include the edges of bare sand amongst vegetation, rocks or logs, open areas on the margins of vegetation on beaches, the edges of mats of vegetation in marshes¹, and grassy or rocky substrates on rocky islets¹. The species will also readily nest on artificial rafts¹. Management information Management techniques used to increase the breeding numbers and reproductive success of the species in the Great Lakes region of North America include creating artificial nesting sites, vegetation management, enhancement of existing nesting habitat, using models and vocalisation to attract breeding pairs and predator control (e.g. mammal-exclusion, destruction of gull nests, direct predator removal, or preventative measures against gull nesting)⁶. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites¹². The scheme particularly specifies that bare islets with 30-100 % cover of low vegetation (sward heights less than 20 cm) should be maintained or created as nesting sites¹². Artificial nesting rafts have proved effective in promoting breeding success in areas where there is a lack of suitable nesting habitat or where human disturbance is a particular threat (1996)¹. Using fire to expose the ground surface in areas where vegetation succession is proceeding too far towards closed vegetation stages has been successful in some areas¹¹. Culling predatory gulls can be an effective management tool to enhance breeding productivity¹³, although some management plans recommend non-lethal harassment techniques that target gulls (e.g. egg and nest destruction, conspicuous human observers, gull displacement walks, and pyrotechnics) to reduce predation on nesting colonies rather then cullling¹⁴.

Systems:

Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	During the breeding season the species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies^{6, 8} (e.g. from off-road vehicles, recreation, motor-boats, personal watercraft and dogs)^{1, 9, 10, 11}, and to the flooding of nest sites as a result of naturally fluctuating water levels^{1, 8, 11}. On its breeding grounds the species is also threatened by habitat loss as a result of coastal developement^{1, 6, 8, 11}, erosion¹¹, vegetation overgrowth (rapid vegetation succession encroaching upon nesting habitats)^{1, 6, 11}, and chemical pollution (which may also result in eggshell thinning)^{1, 6, 11}. It suffers predation at nesting colonies from rats (especially on islands)^{1, 8} and from expanding populations of large gull species^{1, 7} such as Herring Gulls Larus argentatus⁸ (gulls may also prevent the species from nesting in the area by colonising it first)^{1, 6}. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁵. Utilisation The species is harvested semi-commercially on its wintering grounds in the Caribbean^{1, 9}.

Major Threat(s):

During the breeding season the species is vulnerable to human disturbance at nesting colonies^{6, 8} (e.g. from off-road vehicles, recreation, motor-boats, personal watercraft and dogs)^{1, 9, 10, 11}, and to the flooding of nest sites as a result of naturally fluctuating water levels^{1, 8, 11}. On its breeding grounds the species is also threatened by habitat loss as a result of coastal developement^{1, 6, 8, 11}, erosion¹¹, vegetation overgrowth (rapid vegetation succession encroaching upon nesting habitats)^{1, 6, 11}, and chemical pollution (which may also result in eggshell thinning)^{1, 6, 11}. It suffers predation at nesting colonies from rats (especially on islands)^{1, 8} and from expanding populations of large gull species^{1, 7} such as Herring Gulls Larus argentatus⁸ (gulls may also prevent the species from nesting in the area by colonising it first)^{1, 6}. The species is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁵. Utilisation The species is harvested semi-commercially on its wintering grounds in the Caribbean^{1, 9}.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2009. Sterna hirundo. In: IUCN 2010. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2010.3. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 09 September 2010.
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