Loxioides bailleui

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	PASSERIFORMES	FRINGILLIDAE

Scientific Name:

Loxioides bailleui

Species Authority:

(Oustalet, 1877)

Common Name/s:

English

–

Palila

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Critically Endangered A4bce ver 3.1

Year Published:

2011

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Symes, A., Taylor, J., Butchart, S.

Contributor/s:

Scott, J., Baker, P., Leonard, D., Baker, H., Pratt, T., Banko, P., Brinck, K., Farmer, C., Woodworth, B., Camp, R., Wallace, G., Becker, D., Fretz, S., Gorresen, M., VanderWerf, E.

Justification:
This species has is listed as Critically Endangered because it has suffered extremely rapid declines since 2005. Drivers of the declines include habitat degradation by introduced ungulates, predation by introduced cats, competition for caterpillar food from introduced parasitoid wasps and a recent drought that may have reduced mamane pod production.

History:

2010	–	Critically Endangered
2009	–	Critically Endangered
2008	–	Endangered
2004	–	Endangered
2000	–	Endangered
1996	–	Endangered
1994	–	Endangered

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	This species is restricted to Hawai`i in the Hawaiian Islands (USA), where it was abundant, although locally distributed, until the beginning of the 20th century, and evidence from the fossil record suggests that the species occurred throughout the archipelago prior to human settlement¹³. In 1997, it occupied an estimated 78 km² and numbered 4,396 birds, mostly on the western slope of Mauna Kea, where 20.5 km² was estimated to hold 72% of the total population^2,3,7. Comparison of annual counts from 1980-2007 suggests that the population size has historically been subject to fluctuations (1,007-6,356 individuals), but since 2003 it has undergone a consistent and rapid decline (58% in the core population between 2003-2007 and projected to reach 96.6% over three generations or 14 years)¹⁷. In 2007, the population was estimated at 3,866 (95% CI: 3,134-4,750) individuals¹³, and has been declining since, with data from 2008 estimating a population of 2,640 individuals¹⁷ and data from 2009 indicating a population of 2,512 individuals¹⁸. Survey results from 2010 suggest that the decline is worsening, with the estimated population size down to only c.1,200 individuals¹⁹. The species's range remains centred on the western slope, and it has contracted such that c.96% of the population is found in 3,000 ha of forest¹⁸. It has not been found in annual surveys on the east slope since 2004^13,14. A small colony of around 23 individuals has been established on the northern slope through translocation and release of captive-bred birds, but it is not self-sustaining at present¹³.
Countries:	Native: United States
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Survey results from 2010 suggest that the population numbered c.1,200 individuals (American Bird Conservancy 2010), thus the number of mature individuals is estimated to fall in the range of 250-999.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	It is confined to c.2,000-3,000 m, favouring dry mamane and mamane-naio forest. It feeds primarily on mamane seeds, flowers, and insects², with the availability of mamane seeds affecting productivity and adult survival. In drought years, most birds do not attempt to breed^4,5. The species exhibits low rates of reproduction¹¹, laying fewer eggs and taking longer to raise its young compared with mainland songbirds¹².
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

It is confined to c.2,000-3,000 m, favouring dry mamane and mamane-naio forest. It feeds primarily on mamane seeds, flowers, and insects², with the availability of mamane seeds affecting productivity and adult survival. In drought years, most birds do not attempt to breed^4,5. The species exhibits low rates of reproduction¹¹, laying fewer eggs and taking longer to raise its young compared with mainland songbirds¹².

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The most significant declines in this species's range and population are thought to have been caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation and predation by introduced rats prior to Western settlement¹³. The subalpine forest habitat of this species has been severely overbrowsed by feral and domestic ungulates, and nests and adults are preyed upon by Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus sandwichensis, Hawaiian Hawks Buteo solitarius and feral cats, with introduced black rats Rattus rattus, which are very scarce in dry forest, probably only depredating nests¹³. Up to 11% of nests are depredated by feral cats each year¹². Grazing by cattle was an historical factor in the species's decline, although cattle are now limited to pastures that are unsuitable for L. bailleui¹³. Food shortages may account for high losses of eggs and chicks at the end of the breeding season². Alien grass cover is high in much of the species's range¹¹, suppressing mamane regeneration and potentially increasing the threat of fire. Increasing human activities, such as military training, could further increase the chances of fire¹³. In 2006-2007, there were numerous fires on and near Mauna Kea. A fire in the species's core area could potentially affect 50-90% of the population¹³. Fires in August and September 2010 affected c.560 ha of suitable habitat on the southern slope of Mount Kea¹⁹. The recent opening of trails for All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) in the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve is a concern¹³, and may cause disturbance and habitat degradation. Continuing threats include grazing by feral sheep, wild sheep Ovis gmelini musimon, and their hybrids, which slows mamane regeneration^5,11,13, and alien insects preying on and parasitising native insects^5,11, particularly at low elevations¹¹. Native caterpillars are an important source of protein for nestlings, and possibly breeding females; however, they are preyed upon by voracious yellow-jacket wasps Vespula pensylvanica and several ant species, particularly Argentine ants Linepithema humile, whilst parasitoid wasps kill the caterpillars by laying their eggs on or inside them¹¹. In addition to the aforementioned threats, this species's very restricted range means it could be extirpated by extreme events such as drought and storms¹¹, and drought is thought to be contributing to the species's recent decline¹³. Demographic patterns of mamane mortality are under investigation, as mamane may be under threat from pathogens¹⁰. Climate change may pose a long-term future threat to the species, as a projected 2^oC rise in regional temperatures and increased precipitation in high elevation forests late in the next century would nearly eliminate the area of remaining habitat in Hakalau Wildlife Refuge¹⁶.

Major Threat(s):

The most significant declines in this species's range and population are thought to have been caused by human-induced habitat loss and degradation and predation by introduced rats prior to Western settlement¹³. The subalpine forest habitat of this species has been severely overbrowsed by feral and domestic ungulates, and nests and adults are preyed upon by Short-eared Owls Asio flammeus sandwichensis, Hawaiian Hawks Buteo solitarius and feral cats, with introduced black rats Rattus rattus, which are very scarce in dry forest, probably only depredating nests¹³. Up to 11% of nests are depredated by feral cats each year¹². Grazing by cattle was an historical factor in the species's decline, although cattle are now limited to pastures that are unsuitable for L. bailleui¹³. Food shortages may account for high losses of eggs and chicks at the end of the breeding season². Alien grass cover is high in much of the species's range¹¹, suppressing mamane regeneration and potentially increasing the threat of fire. Increasing human activities, such as military training, could further increase the chances of fire¹³. In 2006-2007, there were numerous fires on and near Mauna Kea. A fire in the species's core area could potentially affect 50-90% of the population¹³. Fires in August and September 2010 affected c.560 ha of suitable habitat on the southern slope of Mount Kea¹⁹. The recent opening of trails for All-Terrain Vehicles (ATVs) in the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve is a concern¹³, and may cause disturbance and habitat degradation. Continuing threats include grazing by feral sheep, wild sheep Ovis gmelini musimon, and their hybrids, which slows mamane regeneration^5,11,13, and alien insects preying on and parasitising native insects^5,11, particularly at low elevations¹¹. Native caterpillars are an important source of protein for nestlings, and possibly breeding females; however, they are preyed upon by voracious yellow-jacket wasps Vespula pensylvanica and several ant species, particularly Argentine ants Linepithema humile, whilst parasitoid wasps kill the caterpillars by laying their eggs on or inside them¹¹. In addition to the aforementioned threats, this species's very restricted range means it could be extirpated by extreme events such as drought and storms¹¹, and drought is thought to be contributing to the species's recent decline¹³. Demographic patterns of mamane mortality are under investigation, as mamane may be under threat from pathogens¹⁰. Climate change may pose a long-term future threat to the species, as a projected 2^oC rise in regional temperatures and increased precipitation in high elevation forests late in the next century would nearly eliminate the area of remaining habitat in Hakalau Wildlife Refuge¹⁶.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway The species's population has been monitored since 1980¹¹. In 1979 and 1986, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges^11,14. Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests¹¹. Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully³. Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea¹³. Approximately 36% persisted for longer than two months, and as of July 2007 a small colony of about 23 birds remains on the northern slope. Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles have been produced in every subsequent year (2005-2007)¹³. This translocation programme has been aided by a captive breeding programme initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center in 1996^10,11. Of 21 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2005, at least ten persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with two males remaining in the north slope colony as of July 2007¹³. The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the temporary suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species's conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and management, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are ongoing¹⁵. Work is being carried out to restore habitat by controlling fountain grass Pennisetum setaceum (which increases the frequency and intensity of fires) and Cape ivy Delairea odorata (which reduces the vigour of native trees)¹⁹. Hawai`i State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats^5,9. Reforestation is also taking place on the northern slope of Mount Kea¹⁹. Goats have been virtually removed from Mauna Kea¹³, and the plan to build an 87-km-long fence enclosing all of the Palila's critical habitat to prevent the ingress of sheep and goats has been completed^18,19. The fence is c.2 m high and encloses c.94 % of the species's habitat¹⁹. In 2010, a comprehensive fire management plan was being developed for the Mount Kea area¹⁹. Conservation Actions Proposed Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire⁵. Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates^1,5,6,14. Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range^5,13. Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane⁵. Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve^11,13. Remove and fence-out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels^11,13. Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge¹⁶.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
The species's population has been monitored since 1980¹¹. In 1979 and 1986, federal courts ordered the eradication of feral goats and feral and wild sheep species from the species's habitat on Mauna Kea, and these rulings have remained in effect despite six legal challenges^11,14. Forest regeneration has improved as a result, although current efforts to reduce sheep have not been sufficient to allow the complete recovery of mamane forests¹¹. Despite such efforts, the species's strong site-tenacity might prevent recolonisation of areas of recovered forest. In 1993, some birds were translocated to a new site where predators were controlled and, although many homed back to their capture site, at least two pairs stayed and bred successfully³. Six additional translocations have taken place since, and by the end of 2006, 188 wild birds had been translocated from the western to the northern slope of Mauna Kea¹³. Approximately 36% persisted for longer than two months, and as of July 2007 a small colony of about 23 birds remains on the northern slope. Egg-laying occurred in 2004, and independent juveniles have been produced in every subsequent year (2005-2007)¹³. This translocation programme has been aided by a captive breeding programme initiated at the Keauhou Bird Conservation Center in 1996^10,11. Of 21 captive-reared birds released in 2003-2005, at least ten persisted in the reintroduction area for at least one year, with two males remaining in the north slope colony as of July 2007¹³. The construction of a highway through unoccupied, federally designated critical habitat was approved in 1999. A mitigation plan accompanied the development, including the temporary suspension of cattle grazing in pastures adjacent to the species's range. The species's conservation is the subject of detailed research, and funding from the mitigation plan supported translocation research and enabled the expansion or continuation of studies into the species's ecology and limiting factors, mamane ecology, food availability, predator ecology and management, and fire ecology. Habitat restoration and research into restoration methods are ongoing¹⁵. Work is being carried out to restore habitat by controlling fountain grass Pennisetum setaceum (which increases the frequency and intensity of fires) and Cape ivy Delairea odorata (which reduces the vigour of native trees)¹⁹. Hawai`i State and federal agencies have begun programmes to control cats and rats^5,9. Reforestation is also taking place on the northern slope of Mount Kea¹⁹. Goats have been virtually removed from Mauna Kea¹³, and the plan to build an 87-km-long fence enclosing all of the Palila's critical habitat to prevent the ingress of sheep and goats has been completed^18,19. The fence is c.2 m high and encloses c.94 % of the species's habitat¹⁹. In 2010, a comprehensive fire management plan was being developed for the Mount Kea area¹⁹.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Establish protocols and make preparations to control fire⁵. Intensify control of mammalian predators (especially feral cats) and grazing ungulates^1,5,6,14. Continue to expand the application of translocations and captive propagation for introducing the species to currently unoccupied sites within the former range^5,13. Reforest areas adjacent to the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve and areas where alien grasses and grazing threaten mamane⁵. Carry out forest restoration research to find ways to accelerate the rehabilitation and regeneration of mamane trees within the Mauna Kea Forest Reserve^11,13. Remove and fence-out ungulates from all critical habitat and the mitigation parcels^11,13. Continue to restore forest above Hakalau Wildlife Refuge¹⁶.

Bibliography [top]

	Banko, P. C. 2006. Palila restoration: lessons from long-term research. Banko, P. C.; Hess, S. C.; Johnson, L.; Dougill, S. J. 1998. Palila population estimate for 1997. 'Elepaio 58: 11-15. Benning, T. L.; LaPointe, D.; Atkinson, C. T.; Vitousek, P. M. 2002. Interactions of climate change with biological invasions and land use in the Hawaiian Islands: modeling the fate of endemic birds using a geographic information system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99(22): 14246-14249. Fancy, S. G.; Snetsinger, T. J.; Jacobi, J. D. 1997. Translocation of the Palila, an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper. Pacific Conservation Biology 3(1): 39-46. Hess, S. C.; Banko, P. C. 2006. Feral cats: too long a threat to Hawaiian wildlife. Jacobi, J. D.; Fancy, S. G.; Giffin, J. G.; Scott, J. M. 1996. Long-term population variablity in the Palila, and endangered Hawaiian Honeycreeper. Pacific Science 50: 363-370. Leonard, D. L.; Banko, P. C.; Brinck, K. W.; Farmer, C.; Camp, R. J. 2008. Recent surveys indicate rapid decline of Palila population. 'Elepaio 68(4): 1, 28-30. Pratt, T. K.; Banko, P. C.; Fancy, S. G.; Lindsey, G. D.; Jacobi, J. D. 1997. Status and management of the Palila, an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper, 1987-1996. Pacific Conservation Biology 3(4): 330-340. Scott, J. M.; Mountainspring, S.; Ramsey, F. L.; Kepler, C. B. 1986. Forest bird communties of the Hawiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Cooper Ornithological Society, California.

Banko, P. C. 2006. Palila restoration: lessons from long-term research.

Banko, P. C.; Hess, S. C.; Johnson, L.; Dougill, S. J. 1998. Palila population estimate for 1997. 'Elepaio 58: 11-15.

Benning, T. L.; LaPointe, D.; Atkinson, C. T.; Vitousek, P. M. 2002. Interactions of climate change with biological invasions and land use in the Hawaiian Islands: modeling the fate of endemic birds using a geographic information system. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 99(22): 14246-14249.

Fancy, S. G.; Snetsinger, T. J.; Jacobi, J. D. 1997. Translocation of the Palila, an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper. Pacific Conservation Biology 3(1): 39-46.

Hess, S. C.; Banko, P. C. 2006. Feral cats: too long a threat to Hawaiian wildlife.

Jacobi, J. D.; Fancy, S. G.; Giffin, J. G.; Scott, J. M. 1996. Long-term population variablity in the Palila, and endangered Hawaiian Honeycreeper. Pacific Science 50: 363-370.

Leonard, D. L.; Banko, P. C.; Brinck, K. W.; Farmer, C.; Camp, R. J. 2008. Recent surveys indicate rapid decline of Palila population. 'Elepaio 68(4): 1, 28-30.

Pratt, T. K.; Banko, P. C.; Fancy, S. G.; Lindsey, G. D.; Jacobi, J. D. 1997. Status and management of the Palila, an endangered Hawaiian honeycreeper, 1987-1996. Pacific Conservation Biology 3(4): 330-340.

Scott, J. M.; Mountainspring, S.; Ramsey, F. L.; Kepler, C. B. 1986. Forest bird communties of the Hawiian Islands: their dynamics, ecology, and conservation. Cooper Ornithological Society, California.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2011. Loxioides bailleui. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 22 May 2012.
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