Spheniscus humboldti

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	SPHENISCIFORMES	SPHENISCIDAE

Scientific Name:

Spheniscus humboldti

Species Authority:

Meyen, 1834

Common Name/s:

English	–	Humboldt Penguin, Peruvian Penguin
Spanish	–	Pingüino de Humboldt

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Vulnerable A2bcde+3bcde+4bcde;C1+2b ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S. & Calvert, R.

Contributor/s:

Knauf, G., Majluf, P., Roca, M. & Valqui, T.

Justification:
This species has undergone extreme population size fluctuations, (close to one order of magnitude) at major colonies in Chile. However, an overall reduction in the number of breeding colonies indicates that there is probably an ongoing, underlying rapid decline in numbers. It consequently qualifies as Vulnerable.

History:

2008	–	Vulnerable
2005	–	Vulnerable
2004	–	Vulnerable
2000	–	Vulnerable

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Spheniscus humboldti occurs in coastal Peru and Chile with vagrants recorded north to Colombia⁷. It has been declining since the mid-19th century, but the 1982-1983 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO) reduced the population from 19,000-21,000 birds to 5,180-6,080^3,4,5. By 1995-1996, this had increased to 10,000-12,000 birds¹. The 1997-1998 ENSO resulted in further declines to 3,300 birds⁶. In Peru, the number of colonies declined from 17 in 1981 to two in 1996³, but had recovered to six by 1999⁸. In 2000, 78% of the total Peruvian population of 4,425 birds was clustered in just five colonies¹³. A survey in 2004 estimated a total population of around 5,000 individuals, with birds present at 21 sites, 16 of which were considered breeding sites, although only 6 of these held more than 200 birds¹⁴. The size and distribution of colonies in Peru changed considerably during the period 1984-1999, with proportionally more on the southern coast and fewer in the north and central coastal areas in 1999¹³. In Chile, it has bred at 14 sites, but at only 10 recently³. Surveys in 2002 found nesting at 9 islands, with a total population of 9,000 pairs, 7,000 of which were at Chañaral Island. A repeat visit to Chañaral in 2003 recorded 20,000 individuals, mostly moulting¹⁵. In 1998, a population and habitat viability analysis suggested that extinction was likely within 100 years¹.
Countries:	Native: Chile; Peru; United States Vagrant: Colombia; Ecuador
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Cheney (1998), P. Majluf in litt. (1999)
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Breeding site It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves^1,3. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation¹¹. Reproductive behaviour Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile¹, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)¹¹. Migratory range There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru^2,12, and occasionally over 600 km^2,12. Diet It feeds on schooling anchoveta Engraulis ringens, squid and other small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders travelling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years¹⁶. Foraging range Humboldt Penguins are central place foragers during the breeding season, since they must return to their nests between foraging trips. As a pelagic predator, the Humboldt Penguin is highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal waters near its nesting sites²¹. It typically makes short, shallow dives within 30 m of the surface²¹. At Isla Pan de Azúcar, Chile, it was found that maximum dive depth was 53 m. Mean distance travelled during foraging trips was 26.5 km, with a minimum and maximum distance of 8.1 and 68.7 km respectively. 90% of the birds remained within 35 km of their breeding colony^{17, 19}. At Punta San Juan, Peru, the average maximum distance from the colony of all foraging trips was 19.8 km¹⁸. Following breeding failure, non-breeding birds take longer foraging trips, make deeper and longer dives and dive less often per hour at sea than do breeding birds²⁰. Mean and maximum foraging trip duration were both significantly longer in failed breeders than in breeding birds¹⁶.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Breeding site It nests on islands and rocky coastal stretches, burrowing holes in guano and occasionally using scrape nests or caves^1,3. It apparently prefers to breed on slopes at high elevation sites where guano deposits are available for burrow excavation¹¹. Reproductive behaviour Breeding occurs year-round, but has two peaks, in May and July and from September to December. Reproductive success is reported as low, especially in Chile¹, though considerably higher at one rookery in Peru (Punta San Juan)¹¹. Migratory range There may be an extended migration route of c.700 km from Peru to north Chile, and adult birds regularly disperse up to 170 km in Peru^2,12, and occasionally over 600 km^2,12. Diet It feeds on schooling anchoveta Engraulis ringens, squid and other small fish, mainly caught in inshore waters, with failed breeders travelling further afield, as do breeders during ENSO years¹⁶. Foraging range Humboldt Penguins are central place foragers during the breeding season, since they must return to their nests between foraging trips. As a pelagic predator, the Humboldt Penguin is highly dependent on predictable food resources in coastal waters near its nesting sites²¹. It typically makes short, shallow dives within 30 m of the surface²¹. At Isla Pan de Azúcar, Chile, it was found that maximum dive depth was 53 m. Mean distance travelled during foraging trips was 26.5 km, with a minimum and maximum distance of 8.1 and 68.7 km respectively. 90% of the birds remained within 35 km of their breeding colony^{17, 19}. At Punta San Juan, Peru, the average maximum distance from the colony of all foraging trips was 19.8 km¹⁸. Following breeding failure, non-breeding birds take longer foraging trips, make deeper and longer dives and dive less often per hour at sea than do breeding birds²⁰. Mean and maximum foraging trip duration were both significantly longer in failed breeders than in breeding birds¹⁶.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The primary threats for this species are mortality caused by entanglement in artisanal fishery nets, illegal capture for consumption and the pet trade¹⁴. Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano¹⁰. Guano is still harvested in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat¹¹. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks^1,10,12. Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fishermen, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution^{1,3, 15}. One of the major breeding sites in northern Chile is currently threatened by the construction of two coal-fired power stations²².

Major Threat(s):

The primary threats for this species are mortality caused by entanglement in artisanal fishery nets, illegal capture for consumption and the pet trade¹⁴. Historical declines resulted from over-exploitation of guano¹⁰. Guano is still harvested in Peru, and likely limits the availability of preferred nesting habitat¹¹. Severe fluctuations in numbers are caused by (apparently increasing) ENSO events, and more recent underlying declines probably relate to over-fishing of anchoveta Engraulis spp. stocks^1,10,12. Other threats include capture for use as fish bait, use of explosives by fishermen, mining activities, human disturbance, predation by Andean fox, rats and cats, and marine pollution^{1,3, 15}. One of the major breeding sites in northern Chile is currently threatened by the construction of two coal-fired power stations²².

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected^1,9. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction¹⁴. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan^1,6. Campaigning has prevented the construction of one coal mine at Punta Choros, though two more may still be built²². Conservation Actions Proposed Monitor the population throughout its breeding range³. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting³. Create marine reserves around colonies³. Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch^{3, 14}. Reduce fish harvests around major colonies¹⁴ and elsewhere during ENSO events³. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions³.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I. In Chile there is a 30-year moratorium (from 1995) on hunting and capture, and the four major colonies (not including intertidal and marine areas) are protected^1,9. In Peru, 12 of the principal colonies are legally protected by the government institute managing guano extraction¹⁴. There are walls and guards at some sites, and extraction is designed to have a minimal impact at Punta San Juan^1,6. Campaigning has prevented the construction of one coal mine at Punta Choros, though two more may still be built²².

Conservation Actions Proposed
Monitor the population throughout its breeding range³. Protect breeding sites and regulate guano harvesting³. Create marine reserves around colonies³. Establish awareness programmes around key colonies to reduce hunting and bycatch^{3, 14}. Reduce fish harvests around major colonies¹⁴ and elsewhere during ENSO events³. Improve waste treatment in coastal regions³.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Spheniscus humboldti. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 04 February 2012.
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