Megadyptes antipodes

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	SPHENISCIFORMES	SPHENISCIDAE

Scientific Name:

Megadyptes antipodes

Species Authority:

(Hombron & Jacquinot, 1841)

Common Name/s:

English

–

Yellow-eyed Penguin

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Endangered B2b(iii)c(iv) ver 3.1

Year Published:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Calvert, R., Butchart, S., Bird, J.

Contributor/s:

Houston, D.

Justification:
This species is confined to a small range when breeding, its forest/scrub habitat has declined in quality and it has undergone extreme fluctuations in numbers. The area it occupies when breeding has been shown to be sufficiently small to confer Endangered status. However, the decline in habitat quality may have halted, and is likely to begin to improve because of ongoing conservation measures, suggesting that the species could be downlisted in the future.

History:

2008	–	Endangered
2007	–	Endangered
2005	–	Endangered
2004	–	Endangered
2000	–	Endangered
1996	–	Vulnerable
1994	–	Vulnerable

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Megadyptes antipodes breeds in New Zealand on the South Island's south-east coast (470 pairs), Foveaux Strait and Stewart Islands (220-400 pairs in 1994, dropping to 178 pairs in 1999-2001¹⁵), Auckland Islands (520-570 pairs) and Campbell Islands (405 pairs)¹⁶. Two severe mortality events in 1986 and 1990 each halved the number of South Island pairs and in 2004 50% of chicks in South Island were killed by diptheritic stomatisis¹⁶. However, numbers have recovered to 1980 levels¹⁶. The Catlins population (south-east coast of South Island) may have declined by 75% since the 1940s^2,9. Numbers of individuals on Campbell Island declined between 1987 and 1998¹⁰. Adults are sedentary, but juveniles disperse north as far as the Cook Strait³. It was previously thought to have a historic range reaching the northern end of the South Island, however a recent paper revealed this to be a distinct species¹⁹.
Countries:	Native: New Zealand; United States
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Moore (1992), Taylor (2000)
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Population:

Moore (1992), Taylor (2000)

Population Trend:

Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	On islands it usually nests in forest, while in the South Island it tends to nest in scrub remnants³. Nests must have surrounding vegetation that conceals them from visual contact with conspecifics for successful breeding⁶. It is a solitary breeder, maintaining a large territory size which can be up to one hectare. Two eggs are laid in mid-September to mid-October, with hatching occurring at the beginning of November. Chicks fledge from mid-February to mid-March²⁰. It feeds primarily on red cod, opal fish, sprat⁸, silversides, ahuru, blue cod and squid, taking prey up to 15 km offshore at the edge of the continental self²⁰. The generation length is 5-7 years¹.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

On islands it usually nests in forest, while in the South Island it tends to nest in scrub remnants³. Nests must have surrounding vegetation that conceals them from visual contact with conspecifics for successful breeding⁶. It is a solitary breeder, maintaining a large territory size which can be up to one hectare. Two eggs are laid in mid-September to mid-October, with hatching occurring at the beginning of November. Chicks fledge from mid-February to mid-March²⁰. It feeds primarily on red cod, opal fish, sprat⁸, silversides, ahuru, blue cod and squid, taking prey up to 15 km offshore at the edge of the continental self²⁰. The generation length is 5-7 years¹.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Habitat degradation is ongoing in the South Island, but has been curtailed to a significant extent. Introduced ferret Mustela furo, stoat M. erminea and cats are major predators in the South Island and on Stewart Island, as demonstrated by the paucity of juveniles there¹⁵. Predators are also present in all main breeding colonies on the islands (except Campbell Island), but their impact is unknown³. Rogue female Hooker's sea lions eat 20-30 birds annually on the Otago Peninsula¹³. Population crashes may be due to avian malaria or biotoxins¹⁴, and food shortages due to sea temperature changes may also be a periodic problem⁷. Disease appears to be a major problem in some populations with diptheritic stomatisis (caused by the bacteria Corynebacterium amycolatum) and a Leucocytozoon blood parasite (formerly only known from Fiordland penguins) major causes of mortality for chicks^17,18. Human disturbance, even from tourists at breeding colonies, negatively affects fledgling weight and probability of survival¹¹. Drowning in fishing nets and accidental fires are additional known threats⁵.

Major Threat(s):

Habitat degradation is ongoing in the South Island, but has been curtailed to a significant extent. Introduced ferret Mustela furo, stoat M. erminea and cats are major predators in the South Island and on Stewart Island, as demonstrated by the paucity of juveniles there¹⁵. Predators are also present in all main breeding colonies on the islands (except Campbell Island), but their impact is unknown³. Rogue female Hooker's sea lions eat 20-30 birds annually on the Otago Peninsula¹³. Population crashes may be due to avian malaria or biotoxins¹⁴, and food shortages due to sea temperature changes may also be a periodic problem⁷. Disease appears to be a major problem in some populations with diptheritic stomatisis (caused by the bacteria Corynebacterium amycolatum) and a Leucocytozoon blood parasite (formerly only known from Fiordland penguins) major causes of mortality for chicks^17,18. Human disturbance, even from tourists at breeding colonies, negatively affects fledgling weight and probability of survival¹¹. Drowning in fishing nets and accidental fires are additional known threats⁵.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway A wide range of research projects has been completed in the South Island. The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust was formed to raise awareness and funds. Many mainland sites have been fenced to minimise trampling by farm stock. Predator trapping is intensive during the breeding season in several South Island sites, and habitat is being restored^1,2. Conservation Actions Proposed Obtain accurate census and distribution data for Auckland Islands. Census South Island colonies every five years, and study sites annually⁷. Eradicate predators from Auckland Islands. Investigate the impact of commercial fishing activity on Yellow-eyed Penguins (set-netting and because of evidence that bottom disturbance by trawling/dredging may influence penguin behaviour and food quality). Regulate tourist access to breeding colonies on South Island.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
A wide range of research projects has been completed in the South Island. The Yellow-eyed Penguin Trust was formed to raise awareness and funds. Many mainland sites have been fenced to minimise trampling by farm stock. Predator trapping is intensive during the breeding season in several South Island sites, and habitat is being restored^1,2.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Obtain accurate census and distribution data for Auckland Islands. Census South Island colonies every five years, and study sites annually⁷. Eradicate predators from Auckland Islands. Investigate the impact of commercial fishing activity on Yellow-eyed Penguins (set-netting and because of evidence that bottom disturbance by trawling/dredging may influence penguin behaviour and food quality). Regulate tourist access to breeding colonies on South Island.

Bibliography [top]

	Boessenkool, S.; Austin, J. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Scofield, P.; Cooper, A.; Seddon, P. J.; Waters, J. M. 2008. Relict or colonizer? Extinction and range expansion of penguins in southern New Zealand. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 276: 815-821. Darby, J. T. 2003. The yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Stewart and Codfish Islands. Notornis 50: 148-154. Ellis, S.; Croxall, J. P.; Cooper, J. 1998. Penguin conservation assessment and management plan: report from the workshop held 8-9 September 1996, Cape Town, South Africa. IUCN/SSC, Apple Valley, USA. Heather, B. D.; Robertson, H. A. 1997. The field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK. Hill, S.L., Reid, K., Thorpe, S.E., Hinke, J. and Watters, G.M. 2007. A compilation of parameters for ecosystem dynamics models of the Scotia Sea - Antarctic Peninsula region. CCAMLR Science 14: 1-25. Houston, D. 2005. Diphtheritic stomatitis in yellow-eyed penguins. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 32: 263-271. Lalas, C.; Ratz, H.; McEwan, K.; McConkey, S. D. 2007. Predation by New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) as a threat to the viability of Yellow-eyed Penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) at Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. Biological Conservation 135: 235-246. Marchant, S.; Higgins, P. J. 1990. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds, 1: ratites to ducks. Oxford University Press, Melbourne. McClung, M. R.; Seddon, P. J.; Massaro, M.; Setiawan, A. N. 2004. Nature-based tourism impacts on yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes: does unregulated visitor access affect fledging weight and juvenile survival? Biological Conservation 119: 279-285. Moore, P. J. 1992. Breeding biology of the Yellow-eyed Penguin Megadyptes antipodes on Campbell Island. Emu 92: 157-162. Rance, C. 1995. Tragedy at Te Rere. Forest and Bird 25: 22-23. Seddon, P. J.; Davis, L. S. 1989. Nest-site selection by Yellow-eyed Penguins. Condor 91: 653-659. Taylor, G. A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington. van Heezik, Y. 1990. Seasonal, geographical and age-related variations in the diet of the Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 17: 201-212. Williams, T. D. 1995. The penguins Spheniscidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Boessenkool, S.; Austin, J. J.; Worthy, T. H.; Scofield, P.; Cooper, A.; Seddon, P. J.; Waters, J. M. 2008. Relict or colonizer? Extinction and range expansion of penguins in southern New Zealand. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 276: 815-821.

Darby, J. T. 2003. The yellow-eyed penguin (Megadyptes antipodes) on Stewart and Codfish Islands. Notornis 50: 148-154.

Ellis, S.; Croxall, J. P.; Cooper, J. 1998. Penguin conservation assessment and management plan: report from the workshop held 8-9 September 1996, Cape Town, South Africa. IUCN/SSC, Apple Valley, USA.

Heather, B. D.; Robertson, H. A. 1997. The field guide to the birds of New Zealand. Oxford University Press, Oxford, UK.

Hill, S.L., Reid, K., Thorpe, S.E., Hinke, J. and Watters, G.M. 2007. A compilation of parameters for ecosystem dynamics models of the Scotia Sea - Antarctic Peninsula region. CCAMLR Science 14: 1-25.

Houston, D. 2005. Diphtheritic stomatitis in yellow-eyed penguins. New Zealand Journal of Zoology 32: 263-271.

Lalas, C.; Ratz, H.; McEwan, K.; McConkey, S. D. 2007. Predation by New Zealand sea lions (Phocarctos hookeri) as a threat to the viability of Yellow-eyed Penguins (Megadyptes antipodes) at Otago Peninsula, New Zealand. Biological Conservation 135: 235-246.

Marchant, S.; Higgins, P. J. 1990. Handbook of Australian, New Zealand and Antarctic birds, 1: ratites to ducks. Oxford University Press, Melbourne.

McClung, M. R.; Seddon, P. J.; Massaro, M.; Setiawan, A. N. 2004. Nature-based tourism impacts on yellow-eyed penguins Megadyptes antipodes: does unregulated visitor access affect fledging weight and juvenile survival? Biological Conservation 119: 279-285.

Moore, P. J. 1992. Breeding biology of the Yellow-eyed Penguin Megadyptes antipodes on Campbell Island. Emu 92: 157-162.

Rance, C. 1995. Tragedy at Te Rere. Forest and Bird 25: 22-23.

Seddon, P. J.; Davis, L. S. 1989. Nest-site selection by Yellow-eyed Penguins. Condor 91: 653-659.

Taylor, G. A. 2000. Action plan for seabird conservation in New Zealand. Department of Conservation, Wellington.

van Heezik, Y. 1990. Seasonal, geographical and age-related variations in the diet of the Yellow-eyed Penguin (Megadyptes antipodes). New Zealand Journal of Zoology 17: 201-212.

Williams, T. D. 1995. The penguins Spheniscidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Megadyptes antipodes. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 22 May 2012.
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