Ciconia ciconia

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	CICONIIFORMES	CICONIIDAE

Scientific Name:

Ciconia ciconia

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	White Stork
French	–	Cigogne blanche

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Published:

2009

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S.

Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

History:

2008	–	Least Concern
2004	–	Least Concern
1988	–	Near Threatened

Geographic Range [top]

Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Angola; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Benin; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Botswana; Bulgaria; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; China; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Estonia; Ethiopia; France; Gabon; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Hungary; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Italy; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Lesotho; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malawi; Mali; Malta; Mauritania; Moldova; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; Niger; Nigeria; Oman; Pakistan; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Poland; Portugal; Qatar; Romania; Russian Federation; Rwanda; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Somalia; South Africa; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Swaziland; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Togo; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; Uzbekistan; Western Sahara; Yemen; Zambia; Zimbabwe Vagrant: Antigua and Barbuda; Congo; Finland; Gambia; Iceland; Ireland; Liberia; Norway; Russian Federation; Saint Helena; Sao Tomé and Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; United Kingdom
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Countries:

Native:

Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Angola; Armenia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Benin; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Botswana; Bulgaria; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; China; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Egypt; Eritrea; Estonia; Ethiopia; France; Gabon; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Hungary; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Italy; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Lesotho; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Liechtenstein; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malawi; Mali; Malta; Mauritania; Moldova; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; Niger; Nigeria; Oman; Pakistan; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Poland; Portugal; Qatar; Romania; Russian Federation; Rwanda; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Somalia; South Africa; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Swaziland; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Togo; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; Uzbekistan; Western Sahara; Yemen; Zambia; Zimbabwe

Vagrant:

Antigua and Barbuda; Congo; Finland; Gambia; Iceland; Ireland; Liberia; Norway; Russian Federation; Saint Helena; Sao Tomé and Principe; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; United Kingdom

Range Map:

Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour This species is a Palearctic migrant¹ that travels with the assistance of thermal updrafts, the occurrence of which restricts the migratory routes the species can take². For example the species must avoid long stretches of open water such as the Mediterranean Sea and must therefore bypass it on narrow fronts to the west or east^{5, 9}, after which it crosses the Sahara on a broad front³. Once within Africa the species becomes considerably nomadic in response to changing abundances of food (e.g. locust swarms)². It breeds from February to April in the Palearctic, whilst the tiny breeding population in South Africa breeds from September to November¹. It nests in loose colonies of up to 30 pairs^{1, 2} or solitarily¹. The main departure from the European breeding grounds occurs in August² with the species travelling in large flocks^{2, 3} of many thousands of individuals⁵, generally arriving in Africa by early-October³. It forages singly, in small groups of 10-50 individuals⁴, or in large flocks if prey is abundant and on its wintering grounds it may gather in large numbers (hundreds or thousands of individuals) at abundant food sources (e.g. locust swarms or grass fires)². The species feeds diurnally² and roosts communally at night in trees³. Habitat The species inhabits open areas, generally avoiding regions with persistent cold, wet weather or large tracts of tall, dense vegetation such as reedbeds or forests^1. Breeding When breeding the species shows a preference for aquatic habitats such as water meadows, flooded or damp pastures^{1, 2}, shallow marshes, lakesides^{1, 2}, lagoons¹, flood-plains, rice-fields and arable land⁵ especially where there are scattered trees for roosting¹. Non-breeding During the winter the species shows a preference for drier habitats² such as grasslands, steppe, savanna and cultivated fields¹, often gathering near lakes, ponds², pools, slow-flowing streams, ditches¹ or rivers². Diet The species is carnivorous and has a varied and opportunistic diet¹. It takes small mammals¹ (e.g. voles, water voles, mice, shrews, young rats²), large insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and locusts), adult and juvenile amphibians, snakes, lizards, earthworms, fish¹, eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds, molluscs and crustaceans². Breeding site The nest is constructed of sticks¹ and is commonly positioned up to 30 m above the ground³ in trees or on the roofs of buildings, as well as on pylons, telegraph poles, stacks of straw and other anthropogenic sites (including specially erected nesting structures), cliffs and occasionally among rushes on the ground¹. The species nests solitarily or in loose colonies, often using traditional nesting sites (there are records of individual nests being used every year for 100 years)^{1, 2}. Nesting sites are usually situated near foraging areas, but may be up to 2-3 km away⁵. Management information Intensively grazed (> 1 cow per hectare) unfertilised grassland was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary⁷, and traditional livestock-farming practices such as creating herb-rich meadows for stock grazing and hay production are thought to be beneficial⁶. A model used to study the impact of different land use patterns on the species found that sequential (asynchronous) mowing of grasslands may increase the food supply for nestlings, thereby increasing reproductive success (as sequential mowing generates a small number of high-quality foraging patches throughout the breeding season)⁸. A report by the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) suggests that habitat management for the species should include the periodic flooding of meadows, the creation of a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows, and the retention or creation of ditches, ponds and lakes⁶. The report also advises management strategies in relation to electricity pylons (e.g. burying or marking aerial cables and preventing disturbance to nests during maintenance) to reduce the threats of electrocution and collision⁶. Due to the species's habit of defecating on its legs to regulate its body temperature in hot climates it is inadvisable to fit individuals with leg-rings for tracking purposes (dry uric acid builds-up on the legs and hardens around leg-rings, tightening them and leading to injuries)⁶. Other methods of monitoring movements such as satellite telemetry or patagial wing-tags are therefore advised⁶.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Freshwater

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour This species is a Palearctic migrant¹ that travels with the assistance of thermal updrafts, the occurrence of which restricts the migratory routes the species can take². For example the species must avoid long stretches of open water such as the Mediterranean Sea and must therefore bypass it on narrow fronts to the west or east^{5, 9}, after which it crosses the Sahara on a broad front³. Once within Africa the species becomes considerably nomadic in response to changing abundances of food (e.g. locust swarms)². It breeds from February to April in the Palearctic, whilst the tiny breeding population in South Africa breeds from September to November¹. It nests in loose colonies of up to 30 pairs^{1, 2} or solitarily¹. The main departure from the European breeding grounds occurs in August² with the species travelling in large flocks^{2, 3} of many thousands of individuals⁵, generally arriving in Africa by early-October³. It forages singly, in small groups of 10-50 individuals⁴, or in large flocks if prey is abundant and on its wintering grounds it may gather in large numbers (hundreds or thousands of individuals) at abundant food sources (e.g. locust swarms or grass fires)². The species feeds diurnally² and roosts communally at night in trees³. Habitat The species inhabits open areas, generally avoiding regions with persistent cold, wet weather or large tracts of tall, dense vegetation such as reedbeds or forests^1. Breeding When breeding the species shows a preference for aquatic habitats such as water meadows, flooded or damp pastures^{1, 2}, shallow marshes, lakesides^{1, 2}, lagoons¹, flood-plains, rice-fields and arable land⁵ especially where there are scattered trees for roosting¹. Non-breeding During the winter the species shows a preference for drier habitats² such as grasslands, steppe, savanna and cultivated fields¹, often gathering near lakes, ponds², pools, slow-flowing streams, ditches¹ or rivers². Diet The species is carnivorous and has a varied and opportunistic diet¹. It takes small mammals¹ (e.g. voles, water voles, mice, shrews, young rats²), large insects (e.g. beetles, grasshoppers, crickets and locusts), adult and juvenile amphibians, snakes, lizards, earthworms, fish¹, eggs and nestlings of ground-nesting birds, molluscs and crustaceans². Breeding site The nest is constructed of sticks¹ and is commonly positioned up to 30 m above the ground³ in trees or on the roofs of buildings, as well as on pylons, telegraph poles, stacks of straw and other anthropogenic sites (including specially erected nesting structures), cliffs and occasionally among rushes on the ground¹. The species nests solitarily or in loose colonies, often using traditional nesting sites (there are records of individual nests being used every year for 100 years)^{1, 2}. Nesting sites are usually situated near foraging areas, but may be up to 2-3 km away⁵. Management information Intensively grazed (> 1 cow per hectare) unfertilised grassland was found to attract a higher abundance of this species in Hungary⁷, and traditional livestock-farming practices such as creating herb-rich meadows for stock grazing and hay production are thought to be beneficial⁶. A model used to study the impact of different land use patterns on the species found that sequential (asynchronous) mowing of grasslands may increase the food supply for nestlings, thereby increasing reproductive success (as sequential mowing generates a small number of high-quality foraging patches throughout the breeding season)⁸. A report by the International Council for Bird Preservation (ICBP) suggests that habitat management for the species should include the periodic flooding of meadows, the creation of a mosaic of native grasslands and meadows, and the retention or creation of ditches, ponds and lakes⁶. The report also advises management strategies in relation to electricity pylons (e.g. burying or marking aerial cables and preventing disturbance to nests during maintenance) to reduce the threats of electrocution and collision⁶. Due to the species's habit of defecating on its legs to regulate its body temperature in hot climates it is inadvisable to fit individuals with leg-rings for tracking purposes (dry uric acid builds-up on the legs and hardens around leg-rings, tightening them and leading to injuries)⁶. Other methods of monitoring movements such as satellite telemetry or patagial wing-tags are therefore advised⁶.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Freshwater

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The species is threatened by habitat alteration including the drainage of wet meadows^{1, 6}, prevention of floods on flood-plains (by dams, embankments, pumping stations and river canalisation schemes)⁶, conversion of foraging areas¹, development, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture² (e.g. mechanised ploughing of rough pastures to sow fertilised crops or swards of more productive grass varieties)⁶. It is also threatened by a shortage of nesting sites in some areas¹ as, for example, the roofs of new rural buildings do not support nests and nest structures on pylons are frequently destroyed during maintenance work⁶. During the winter in Africa there may be high rates of mortality due to changes in feeding conditions owing to drought, desertification and the control of locust populations by insecticides^{2, 6}. The species may also suffer as a result of the excessive use of pesticides (e.g. in Africa)^{1, 4} and through eating poisoned baits put out to catch large carnivores¹. Another serious threat is collision with and electrocution from overhead powerlines¹, especially whilst on migration in Europe². The species is hunted for food and sport¹, mainly on migration² and in its winter quarters⁶.

Major Threat(s):

The species is threatened by habitat alteration including the drainage of wet meadows^{1, 6}, prevention of floods on flood-plains (by dams, embankments, pumping stations and river canalisation schemes)⁶, conversion of foraging areas¹, development, industrialisation and intensification of agriculture² (e.g. mechanised ploughing of rough pastures to sow fertilised crops or swards of more productive grass varieties)⁶. It is also threatened by a shortage of nesting sites in some areas¹ as, for example, the roofs of new rural buildings do not support nests and nest structures on pylons are frequently destroyed during maintenance work⁶. During the winter in Africa there may be high rates of mortality due to changes in feeding conditions owing to drought, desertification and the control of locust populations by insecticides^{2, 6}. The species may also suffer as a result of the excessive use of pesticides (e.g. in Africa)^{1, 4} and through eating poisoned baits put out to catch large carnivores¹. Another serious threat is collision with and electrocution from overhead powerlines¹, especially whilst on migration in Europe². The species is hunted for food and sport¹, mainly on migration² and in its winter quarters⁶.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2009. Ciconia ciconia. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 24 May 2012.
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