Geronticus eremita

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	CICONIIFORMES	THRESKIORNITHIDAE

Scientific Name:

Geronticus eremita

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Bald Ibis, Hermit Ibis, Northern Bald Ibis, Waldrapp
French	–	Ibis chauve
Spanish	–	Ibis Eremita

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Critically Endangered C2a(ii) ver 3.1

Year Published:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Calvert, R., Symes, A., Butchart, S.

Contributor/s:

Tavares, J., Eken, G., Bowden, C., Engin, G., Schäffer, N., Buckley, P., Heip, C., Sekercioglu, C., Serra, G.

Justification:
This species has undergone a long-term decline and now has an extremely small population, with over 95% of truly wild birds concentrated in one subpopulation in Morocco. Numbers are currently increasing owing to management actions and consequent improved breeding success. However, this improvement in its status in Morocco is very recent and has not yet led to an increase in the number of colonies. In Syria its population appears to have declined dramatically in the past 30 years. The species is precautionarily retained as Critically Endangered for these reasons.

History:

2009	–	Critically Endangered
2008	–	Critically Endangered
2005	–	Critically Endangered
2004	–	Critically Endangered
2000	–	Critically Endangered
1996	–	Critically Endangered
1994	–	Critically Endangered

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Geronticus eremita occurs in Morocco at Souss-Massa National Park (Souss-Massa NP) (338 km²; three sub-colonies) and at nearby Tamri (one colony, half the breeding population)², with some movement of birds between these two. A tiny colony was discovered at Palmyra, Syria in 2002, which consisted of just two pairs which fledged five chicks, plus three subadults in 2007²¹, following a severe population decline over the past 30 years¹¹. The population now numbers at only four individuals after one was shot in Saudi Arabia³⁹. The Syrian birds have raised 24 young since 2002 but breeding failed in 2008, probably due to predation by Ravens Corvus corax³². The causes of failed breeding in 2009 are uncertain, but intraspecific disturbance and low spring rainfall are possible factors⁴¹. Searches in 2003 for further colonies within the Syrian steppes proved fruitless^11,19. Satellite-tagging has revealed that this population migrates south through Jordan and Saudi Arabia; six birds spent three weeks in Yemen (July-August), then wintering in central Ethiopia; migrating back to Syria, through Eritrea, Sudan, Saudi Arabia and Jordan in February²⁵; four adults were also located in Ethiopia in the winters of 2006-2007 and 2007-2008³². Records of untagged birds in Israel and Djibouti in late 2007 may relate to immature birds from the Syrian colony or birds from an as yet undiscovered population³². In 1995, the Moroccan population was estimated at 300 individuals (74 breeding pairs that laid eggs)⁷. In 1998, it had declined to 59 pairs, following the mysterious death of 40 birds in 1996^2,8, but by 2006 there were 95 pairs that laid eggs²⁶. Importantly, since 1980 there has been no overall decline in numbers at Souss-Massa NP⁷. Growing numbers, and good productivity (over 500 birds in the Moroccan population after the breeding season in recent years) give cause for optimism that former areas may soon be recolonised¹⁴. A semi-wild population numbering 91 individuals in 2006 exists at Birecik, Turkey²⁰, where birds are free-flying for five months, breeding on natural nest sites and nest-boxes on cliffs, but are taken into captivity after the breeding season to prevent them from migrating^15,20. Three birds from the colony migrated in 2009 travelling via the Palmyra site. However, three were found dead in Jordan³⁵. The Turkish population has been shown to be genetically distinct from the Moroccan population¹⁰. Historically, the species occurred across parts of southern Europe, and captive populations have been maintained in Austria (at Grünau, 22 birds, now breeding) and Spain, with a long-term aim to re-establish the species in parts of its former range. Around 30 birds have now been released in the La Janda area, Spain, and in 2008 a released pair laid two eggs, perhaps the first breeding of the species in the wild in Spain for 500 years³².
Countries:	Native: Algeria; Eritrea; Jordan; Mauritania; Morocco; Saudi Arabia; Syrian Arab Republic; Yemen Possibly extinct: Iraq Reintroduced: Turkey Vagrant: Cape Verde; Germany; Mali; Montenegro; Portugal; Serbia; Somalia; Spain; Western Sahara
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	In Morocco in 2006, 102 pairs (ie 204 mature individuals) nested, out of 277 adults. After the breeding season the total number of birds may exceed 500 (C. Bowden in litt. 2006). Only five mature birds remained in Syria in 2006 (G. Serra in litt. 2006). The Turkish population now numbers 86, and is expected to rise to 100 in 2006 but these managed birds are excluded from the total estimate.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Population:

In Morocco in 2006, 102 pairs (ie 204 mature individuals) nested, out of 277 adults. After the breeding season the total number of birds may exceed 500 (C. Bowden in litt. 2006). Only five mature birds remained in Syria in 2006 (G. Serra in litt. 2006). The Turkish population now numbers 86, and is expected to rise to 100 in 2006 but these managed birds are excluded from the total estimate.

Population Trend:

Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour The small Syrian population is migratory, but the larger western population is dispersive²⁹. Breeding occurs in colonies of up to 40 pairs, beginning in mid-February, and eggs are laid in March-April²⁹. Colonies are vacated in late June or early July, but migration and dispersal do not commence until August, with birds recorded on the breeding grounds as late as November³⁰. Some reside in Souss-Massa NP and around Tamri throughout the year⁷. Juveniles tend to disperse over the longest distances²⁹. Movements appear to be to some extent determined by rainfall³¹. Migrating birds from the Syrian population do not arrive in their Ethiopian winter quarters before December³⁰. All return to their breeding colonies in February and March³⁰. The species forages in loose groups with birds well spread out³⁰, but commutes in flocks between the colony or roost and the feeding grounds³⁰. Winter flocks vary from a few individuals to over 100³⁰. Breeding performance is highly variable from one year to the next⁷, but does not appear to be related to rainfall in the vicinity of the colonies as previously reported elsewhere. It is suggested that coastal fogs in the Souss-Massa region may buffer the adverse impacts of low rainfall, and may in part account for the year-round residency of the birds⁷. Habitat Breeding Colonies are usually situated in rocky areas, cliffs and escarpments in remote arid regions³⁰. In the past castles, ruins and walls were used as nest sites even in urban areas³¹. They are often located near the banks of rivers, along streams or on the coast³¹. Birds may feed on dry ground and rocky slopes, as well as in wetlands, on coastal sandy strips, on river beds and in sandy banks on the sea shore³¹. Roosts away from the breeding site can be in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes in fields³¹. Non-breeding During the non-breeding season it may be found in mountain meadows, stubble fields, short grass, rocky semi-arid ground, and damp ground in lower areas of high plateaus³¹. It prefers areas with very sparse vegetation, but sometimes frequents pastures and cultivated fields¹². It avoids tilled fields and pastures where the grass exceeds 25 cm in height³¹. Birds that migrate to Ethiopia during the non-breeding season feed on high moors, wet meadows and by fast-flowing mountain streams and lake margins up to 3500 m elevation³¹. Diet It has a broad diet, feeding on any available animal-life¹² including insects, arachnids, scorpions, earthworms, snails and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, lizards and snakes, small rodents and small birds, whether alive or dead³¹. It will also feed on vegetation including berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants³¹.
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour The small Syrian population is migratory, but the larger western population is dispersive²⁹. Breeding occurs in colonies of up to 40 pairs, beginning in mid-February, and eggs are laid in March-April²⁹. Colonies are vacated in late June or early July, but migration and dispersal do not commence until August, with birds recorded on the breeding grounds as late as November³⁰. Some reside in Souss-Massa NP and around Tamri throughout the year⁷. Juveniles tend to disperse over the longest distances²⁹. Movements appear to be to some extent determined by rainfall³¹. Migrating birds from the Syrian population do not arrive in their Ethiopian winter quarters before December³⁰. All return to their breeding colonies in February and March³⁰. The species forages in loose groups with birds well spread out³⁰, but commutes in flocks between the colony or roost and the feeding grounds³⁰. Winter flocks vary from a few individuals to over 100³⁰. Breeding performance is highly variable from one year to the next⁷, but does not appear to be related to rainfall in the vicinity of the colonies as previously reported elsewhere. It is suggested that coastal fogs in the Souss-Massa region may buffer the adverse impacts of low rainfall, and may in part account for the year-round residency of the birds⁷. Habitat Breeding Colonies are usually situated in rocky areas, cliffs and escarpments in remote arid regions³⁰. In the past castles, ruins and walls were used as nest sites even in urban areas³¹. They are often located near the banks of rivers, along streams or on the coast³¹. Birds may feed on dry ground and rocky slopes, as well as in wetlands, on coastal sandy strips, on river beds and in sandy banks on the sea shore³¹. Roosts away from the breeding site can be in trees, on cliff ledges or sometimes in fields³¹. Non-breeding During the non-breeding season it may be found in mountain meadows, stubble fields, short grass, rocky semi-arid ground, and damp ground in lower areas of high plateaus³¹. It prefers areas with very sparse vegetation, but sometimes frequents pastures and cultivated fields¹². It avoids tilled fields and pastures where the grass exceeds 25 cm in height³¹. Birds that migrate to Ethiopia during the non-breeding season feed on high moors, wet meadows and by fast-flowing mountain streams and lake margins up to 3500 m elevation³¹. Diet It has a broad diet, feeding on any available animal-life¹² including insects, arachnids, scorpions, earthworms, snails and vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, lizards and snakes, small rodents and small birds, whether alive or dead³¹. It will also feed on vegetation including berries, shoots, duckweed, and rhizomes of aquatic plants³¹.

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	It has declined for several centuries, perhaps partly owing to unidentified natural causes. However, the more recent rapid decline is undoubtedly the result of a combination of factors, with different threats affecting different populations. In Morocco, illegal building and disturbance close to the breeding cliffs and changes in farming on the feeding grounds are the threats that may have the most severe impact on the population. Hunting is the main threat to the tiny Syrian population, and overgrazing and collecting of firewood have reduced habitat quality in feeding areas. A well was under construction at a main feeding site in Syria in 2007. This is likely to increase disturbance to the species and might render this important site unsuitable in the near future²⁷. Disturbance from other human activities is ongoing, and this population is also potentially threatened by trophy hunters, combined with a lack of safe areas with water sources⁴⁰. The integrity of the protected area at the Syrian breeding colonies is potentially threatened by oil concessions, infrastructure development and plans for urbanisation^40,41. Mortality during migration appears to be high among the Syrian birds¹⁷. Breeding productivity in Syria in 2005 was zero: local rangers reported predation as the cause. In Turkey, a major historical threat was poisoning and reduced breeding success caused by pesticides used against locusts and mosquitoes⁴¹. The Birecik population has also suffered from losses to predation in some years²⁸. At Souss-Massa NP, the most recent causes of breeding failure have been loss of eggs to predators and, more importantly, poor chick survival as a result of starvation and predation⁷. A proposed tourist development at the national park could prove detrimental to the birds if it is not constructed in a sensitive way³⁸. Poisoning was suspected to be the cause of death of three tagged individuals found in Jordan, however electrocution whilst standing on electricity pylons is now believed to have been the most likely cause³³.

Major Threat(s):

It has declined for several centuries, perhaps partly owing to unidentified natural causes. However, the more recent rapid decline is undoubtedly the result of a combination of factors, with different threats affecting different populations. In Morocco, illegal building and disturbance close to the breeding cliffs and changes in farming on the feeding grounds are the threats that may have the most severe impact on the population. Hunting is the main threat to the tiny Syrian population, and overgrazing and collecting of firewood have reduced habitat quality in feeding areas. A well was under construction at a main feeding site in Syria in 2007. This is likely to increase disturbance to the species and might render this important site unsuitable in the near future²⁷. Disturbance from other human activities is ongoing, and this population is also potentially threatened by trophy hunters, combined with a lack of safe areas with water sources⁴⁰. The integrity of the protected area at the Syrian breeding colonies is potentially threatened by oil concessions, infrastructure development and plans for urbanisation^40,41. Mortality during migration appears to be high among the Syrian birds¹⁷. Breeding productivity in Syria in 2005 was zero: local rangers reported predation as the cause. In Turkey, a major historical threat was poisoning and reduced breeding success caused by pesticides used against locusts and mosquitoes⁴¹. The Birecik population has also suffered from losses to predation in some years²⁸. At Souss-Massa NP, the most recent causes of breeding failure have been loss of eggs to predators and, more importantly, poor chick survival as a result of starvation and predation⁷. A proposed tourist development at the national park could prove detrimental to the birds if it is not constructed in a sensitive way³⁸. Poisoning was suspected to be the cause of death of three tagged individuals found in Jordan, however electrocution whilst standing on electricity pylons is now believed to have been the most likely cause³³.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999, an international advisory group IAGNBI was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice⁹. An international species action plan was published in 2006. Over 1,000 individuals of the western population exist in captivity worldwide, but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (four Turkish zoos hold 20 birds and participate in an ex situ breeding operation¹⁸). An international studbook was discontinued in 1998¹⁸. An in situ breeding programme at Birecik aims to establish a partially captive population of 150 birds to provide birds for release to the wild population if this action is agreed in future¹⁸. Colour-ringing of young at Birecik has begun and there are plans to attach satellite transmitters to a family party in July 2007²⁰. A captive breeding centre has been built at Ain Tijja-Mezguitem, northeastern Morocco, and is stocked with zoo-bred birds imported in 2000 and 2004⁴³. In 2004, an information centre was also constructed there. It is hoped that birds bred there will eventually be released to establish a new population⁴³. Other captive breeding schemes exist or are planned in Austria, Spain and Italy, and programmes of releasing captive birds are either in progress or in the experimental phase in Bavaria, Spain, and Italy^23,38,42. In southern Spain a total of 109 birds were released between 2004 and 2007. Although juvenile mortality has been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008. Further releases were planned for late 2008, and the organisers hoped the project would be continued until 2010³⁶. There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe²⁴. In 1991, the Souss-Massa National Park was designated specifically to protect nesting and feeding areas⁷ and in 1994, a monitoring and research programme was set up involving local people². The provision of freshwater near the breeding colonies in the national park has been shown experimentally to increase productivity, buffering individuals against the impacts of low rainfall, and is now an ongoing conservation measure³⁷. The Palmyra project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities. Three birds were satellite-tagged there in June 2006²², and one in 2007; giving an indication of the migratory route of Syrian individuals. Syria's first local conservation society, the Palmyra Society for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife, aims to develop ecotourism in the area³⁴. The breeding area in Syria was declared a protected area in 2004 by Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. It was also declared as an IBA by BirdLife in 2007. Ecotourism and awareness raising has been promoted throughout the range. Conservation action to date has focused on reducing the negative influences on breeding success, but it is recognised that for such a long-lived bird adult survival is also likely to be an important limiting factor on the population size. Plans to release young birds from the Birecik colony in Syria during 2009 were halted by delays in obtaining permissions from the Turkish authorities, although it was hoped that this would be possible in 2010⁴¹. Conservation Actions Proposed Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements⁴. Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success⁷. Study threats along the migration route and in the non-breeding range of the Syrian population⁴¹. Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development⁷, making sure to involve local people⁴⁰. Employ management techniques such as the provision of drinking water⁴⁰. Explore the possibility of reintroducing captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available)^4,6,9. Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey²⁰. Better link the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey^20,40. Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds²⁰. Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route²². In Syria, address issues over land tenure and encourage the rehabilitation of pastures⁴⁰. Develop a national action plan for the Syrian population⁴⁰.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix I. CMS Appendix I and II. In 1999, an international advisory group IAGNBI was created to coordinate efforts and provide scientific advice⁹. An international species action plan was published in 2006. Over 1,000 individuals of the western population exist in captivity worldwide, but birds from the eastern population are much rarer in captivity (four Turkish zoos hold 20 birds and participate in an ex situ breeding operation¹⁸). An international studbook was discontinued in 1998¹⁸. An in situ breeding programme at Birecik aims to establish a partially captive population of 150 birds to provide birds for release to the wild population if this action is agreed in future¹⁸. Colour-ringing of young at Birecik has begun and there are plans to attach satellite transmitters to a family party in July 2007²⁰. A captive breeding centre has been built at Ain Tijja-Mezguitem, northeastern Morocco, and is stocked with zoo-bred birds imported in 2000 and 2004⁴³. In 2004, an information centre was also constructed there. It is hoped that birds bred there will eventually be released to establish a new population⁴³. Other captive breeding schemes exist or are planned in Austria, Spain and Italy, and programmes of releasing captive birds are either in progress or in the experimental phase in Bavaria, Spain, and Italy^23,38,42. In southern Spain a total of 109 birds were released between 2004 and 2007. Although juvenile mortality has been high, the first breeding pair was formed on nearby cliffs in 2008. Further releases were planned for late 2008, and the organisers hoped the project would be continued until 2010³⁶. There have been experimental field studies of the feeding ecology of hand-raised individuals in potential summer and winter habitat in Europe²⁴. In 1991, the Souss-Massa National Park was designated specifically to protect nesting and feeding areas⁷ and in 1994, a monitoring and research programme was set up involving local people². The provision of freshwater near the breeding colonies in the national park has been shown experimentally to increase productivity, buffering individuals against the impacts of low rainfall, and is now an ongoing conservation measure³⁷. The Palmyra project in Syria has initiated a research and protection programme in collaboration with local communities. Three birds were satellite-tagged there in June 2006²², and one in 2007; giving an indication of the migratory route of Syrian individuals. Syria's first local conservation society, the Palmyra Society for the Protection of Environment and Wildlife, aims to develop ecotourism in the area³⁴. The breeding area in Syria was declared a protected area in 2004 by Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian Reform. It was also declared as an IBA by BirdLife in 2007. Ecotourism and awareness raising has been promoted throughout the range. Conservation action to date has focused on reducing the negative influences on breeding success, but it is recognised that for such a long-lived bird adult survival is also likely to be an important limiting factor on the population size. Plans to release young birds from the Birecik colony in Syria during 2009 were halted by delays in obtaining permissions from the Turkish authorities, although it was hoped that this would be possible in 2010⁴¹.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Conduct research into feeding and breeding biology, and habitat requirements⁴. Continue to monitor numbers and breeding success⁷. Study threats along the migration route and in the non-breeding range of the Syrian population⁴¹. Protect key breeding and roosting sites from disturbance and development⁷, making sure to involve local people⁴⁰. Employ management techniques such as the provision of drinking water⁴⁰. Explore the possibility of reintroducing captive-bred birds into previously occupied sites (when detailed information on ecological requirements is available)^4,6,9. Research feasibility of re-establishing wild (preferably migratory) population in Turkey²⁰. Better link the Birecik and Syrian populations and projects; research potential to supplement Syrian colony with birds from Turkey^20,40. Continue with current husbandry at Birecik to increase colony to 150-200 birds²⁰. Protect wintering areas in Ethiopia. Raise awareness among hunters on the migration route²². In Syria, address issues over land tenure and encourage the rehabilitation of pastures⁴⁰. Develop a national action plan for the Syrian population⁴⁰.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Geronticus eremita. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 24 May 2012.
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