Phalacrocorax carbo

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	PELECANIFORMES	PHALACROCORACIDAE

Scientific Name:

Phalacrocorax carbo

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Black Shag, Cormorant, Great Cormorant, White-breasted Cormorant
French	–	Grand Cormoran

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Published:

2009

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S.

Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). The population trend appears to be increasing, and hence the species does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

History:

2008	–	Least Concern
2004	–	Least Concern

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	The Great Cormorant has an extremely large distribution, being found on every continent except South America and Antarctica. Colonies in North America are restricted to the north-east, although individuals do winter further south up to the tip of Florida (USA). Breeding colonies are also found in in western Greenland (to Denmark). In Europe, the it can be found along most of the Atlantic coast, as well as throught the Mediterranean and in large areas of Eastern Europe. In Africa, it can be found wintering of the northern coast as well as along the Nile, and breeding year-round on the north-west coast, in pockets of central-east Africa and in South Africa. Summer breeding occurs in patches through much of central Asia up to eastern China, year-round wintering occurs in India and southern China, and birds can be found wintering in south-east Asia. Finally, it can be found in most of Australia except central regions, and it also winters in New Zealand¹.
Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Angola; Armenia; Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Bermuda; Bhutan; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Botswana; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria; Burkina Faso; Burundi; Cambodia; Cameroon; Canada; Chad; China; Congo; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Egypt; Eritrea; Estonia; Ethiopia; Faroe Islands; Finland; France; Gabon; Gambia; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Greenland; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Hong Kong; Hungary; Iceland; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Latvia; Lebanon; Lesotho; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Lithuania; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malawi; Malaysia; Malta; Mauritania; Moldova; Mongolia; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar; Namibia; Nepal; Netherlands; New Caledonia; New Zealand; Nigeria; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Qatar; Romania; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Rwanda; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sudan; Swaziland; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uganda; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; United States; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam; Western Sahara; Yemen; Zambia; Zimbabwe Introduced: Singapore Vagrant: Cape Verde; Christmas Island; Liberia; Liechtenstein; Norfolk Island; Northern Mariana Islands; Papua New Guinea; Seychelles Present - origin uncertain: Guam
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour Throughout its range the species is sedentary or locally dispersive, with northerly populations also making strong migratory movements¹. The timing of breeding varies geographically, occurring all year round¹ or coinciding with the rains in the tropics³ and peaking between April and June in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere¹. The species breeds in mixed-species colonies¹ of 10-500 pairs² (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs)⁴, the size of the colony depending upon the extent of nearby feeding areas². It is usually a solitary feeder⁴ but may form large fishing flocks in some areas¹. It also roosts communally at nesting sites or in major feeding areas and flies in flocks of varying sizes⁴. Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and of Læsø, Denmark, flocks sizes of up to 890 individuals were observed¹³. Feeding is exclusively diurnal. Habitat The species frequents both coastal and inland habitats^1,2,3,4,5. In marine environments it occurs in sheltered coastal areas on estuaries¹, saltpans, coastal lagoons^1,3, mangrove swamps, deltas³ and coastal bays⁴, requiring rocky shores, cliffs and islets for nesting¹ but generally avoiding deep water and rarely extending far offshore⁵. It also inhabits fresh, brackish or saline inland wetlands² including lakes, reservoirs, wide rivers, flood waters¹, deep marshes with open water, swamps and oxbow lakes³, requiring trees, bushes, reedbeds or bare ground for nesting¹ and avoiding overgrown, small, very shallow or very deep waters². Diet The species' diet consists predominantly of fish, including sculpins, Capelin, gadids¹⁴ and flatfish¹⁶ as well as crustaceans, amphibians¹, molluscs and nestling birds⁴. At sea the species preys mostly on bottom-dwelling fish, occasionally also taking shoaling fish in deeper waters¹. It is a generalist, having been shown to feed on at least 22 different fish species¹². Breeding site The nest varies from a depression² to a platform of sticks, reeds and seaweed¹. On the coast the species nests on inshore islands, cliffs, stacks, amongst boulders and occasionally on artificial structures¹, also nesting inland on trees or bushes, in reedbeds or on bare ground¹. The species usually nests in mixed-species colonies, often re-using sites and nests from year to year¹. Foraging range The Great Cormorant has a largely neritic distribution. At sea, it rarely wanders far from the coast, preferring sheltered areas and estuaries where it normally feeds in shallow water. It preys mainly on benthic fish species. It is rarely observed to dive below 10 m^13,14,15 although it has been recorded at up to 35 m¹⁴. Several studies have shown that this species is able to forage up to 20-25 km from its wintering roosts or breeding colonies. Most foraging trips are confined to within 10 km of the colony^12,13,15, but trips up to a 35 km radius have been recorded¹². Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and at Læsø, Denmark, 75% of recorded birds were seen within 3 km of the coast¹³. Preferred habitats include granitic boulder, since this is the favoured habitat of labrids, the commonest prey in the diet¹². The species is also likely to select sandy areas with a high abundance of flatfish or rocky substrates where gobies, wrasse, sea scorpions and small gadoids occur¹⁵.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour Throughout its range the species is sedentary or locally dispersive, with northerly populations also making strong migratory movements¹. The timing of breeding varies geographically, occurring all year round¹ or coinciding with the rains in the tropics³ and peaking between April and June in the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere¹. The species breeds in mixed-species colonies¹ of 10-500 pairs² (occasionally up to 1,000 pairs)⁴, the size of the colony depending upon the extent of nearby feeding areas². It is usually a solitary feeder⁴ but may form large fishing flocks in some areas¹. It also roosts communally at nesting sites or in major feeding areas and flies in flocks of varying sizes⁴. Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and of Læsø, Denmark, flocks sizes of up to 890 individuals were observed¹³. Feeding is exclusively diurnal. Habitat The species frequents both coastal and inland habitats^1,2,3,4,5. In marine environments it occurs in sheltered coastal areas on estuaries¹, saltpans, coastal lagoons^1,3, mangrove swamps, deltas³ and coastal bays⁴, requiring rocky shores, cliffs and islets for nesting¹ but generally avoiding deep water and rarely extending far offshore⁵. It also inhabits fresh, brackish or saline inland wetlands² including lakes, reservoirs, wide rivers, flood waters¹, deep marshes with open water, swamps and oxbow lakes³, requiring trees, bushes, reedbeds or bare ground for nesting¹ and avoiding overgrown, small, very shallow or very deep waters². Diet The species' diet consists predominantly of fish, including sculpins, Capelin, gadids¹⁴ and flatfish¹⁶ as well as crustaceans, amphibians¹, molluscs and nestling birds⁴. At sea the species preys mostly on bottom-dwelling fish, occasionally also taking shoaling fish in deeper waters¹. It is a generalist, having been shown to feed on at least 22 different fish species¹². Breeding site The nest varies from a depression² to a platform of sticks, reeds and seaweed¹. On the coast the species nests on inshore islands, cliffs, stacks, amongst boulders and occasionally on artificial structures¹, also nesting inland on trees or bushes, in reedbeds or on bare ground¹. The species usually nests in mixed-species colonies, often re-using sites and nests from year to year¹. Foraging range The Great Cormorant has a largely neritic distribution. At sea, it rarely wanders far from the coast, preferring sheltered areas and estuaries where it normally feeds in shallow water. It preys mainly on benthic fish species. It is rarely observed to dive below 10 m^13,14,15 although it has been recorded at up to 35 m¹⁴. Several studies have shown that this species is able to forage up to 20-25 km from its wintering roosts or breeding colonies. Most foraging trips are confined to within 10 km of the colony^12,13,15, but trips up to a 35 km radius have been recorded¹². Off the coasts of eastern Jutland and at Læsø, Denmark, 75% of recorded birds were seen within 3 km of the coast¹³. Preferred habitats include granitic boulder, since this is the favoured habitat of labrids, the commonest prey in the diet¹². The species is also likely to select sandy areas with a high abundance of flatfish or rocky substrates where gobies, wrasse, sea scorpions and small gadoids occur¹⁵.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The species is often persecuted by the aquaculture industry and may be shot, drowned or poisoned in attempts to control numbers⁹. It may also suffer from disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines)¹⁰, and is susceptible to avian influenza⁶ and Newcastle disease¹¹ so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these viruses^{6, 11}. Utilisation The species is hunted for recreation and is sold at commercial food markets in Iran⁷.

Major Threat(s):

The species is often persecuted by the aquaculture industry and may be shot, drowned or poisoned in attempts to control numbers⁹. It may also suffer from disturbance from coastal wind farms (wind turbines)¹⁰, and is susceptible to avian influenza⁶ and Newcastle disease¹¹ so may be threatened by future outbreaks of these viruses^{6, 11}. Utilisation The species is hunted for recreation and is sold at commercial food markets in Iran⁷.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway It may be possible to alleviate conflicts between this species and fisheries by using such strategies as preventing birds from landing on fish ponds through disturbance, or creating unsuitable feeding conditions⁸. Conservation Actions Proposed

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
It may be possible to alleviate conflicts between this species and fisheries by using such strategies as preventing birds from landing on fish ponds through disturbance, or creating unsuitable feeding conditions⁸.

Conservation Actions Proposed

Bibliography [top]

	Balmaki, B.; Barati, A. 2006. Harvesting status of migratory waterfowl in northern Iran: a case study from Gilan Province. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 868-869. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. BirdLife International. 2000. The Development of Boundary Selection Criteria for the Extension of Breeding Seabird Special Protection Areas into the Marine Environment. OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. Vlissingen (Flushing). Brown, L. H.; Urban, E. K.; Newman, K. 1982. The birds of Africa vol I. Academic Press, London. Carss, D. N. 1994. Killing of piscivorous birds at Scottish fin fish farms, 1984-1987. Biological Conservation 68: 181-188. del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A.; Sargatal, J. 1992. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Garthe, S.; Hüppop, O. 2004. Scaling possible adverse effects of marine wind farms on seabirds: developing and applying a vulnerability index. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(4): 724-734. Gremillet, D. 1997. Catch per unit effort, foraging efficiency, and parental investment in breeding great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo carbo). ICES Journal of Marine Science 54(4): 635-644. Gremillet, D., Liu, H., Le Maho, Y. and Carss, D.N. 2003. Great cormorants and freshwater fish stocks: a pragmatic approach to an ecological issue. Cormoran 13(2 (supplement no.58)): 131-136. Johnsgard, P. A. 1993. Cormorants, darters, and pelicans of the world. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington. Kirby, J. S.; Holmes, J. S.; Sellers, R. M. 1996. Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo as fish predators: an appraisal of their conservation and management in Great Britain. Biological Conservation 75: 191-199. Kuiken, T. 1999. Review of Newcastle disease in Cormorants. Waterbirds 22(3): 333-347. Leopold, M.F., Van Damme, C.J.G. and Van der Weer, H.W. 1998. Diet of cormorants and the impact of cormorant predation on juvenile flatfish in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Journal of Sea Research 40(1-2): 93-107. Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Nelson, J. B. 2005. Pelicans, cormorants and their relatives. Pelecanidae, Sulidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Fregatidae, Phaethontidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K. Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Balmaki, B.; Barati, A. 2006. Harvesting status of migratory waterfowl in northern Iran: a case study from Gilan Province. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 868-869. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

BirdLife International. 2000. The Development of Boundary Selection Criteria for the Extension of Breeding Seabird Special Protection Areas into the Marine Environment. OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. Vlissingen (Flushing).

Brown, L. H.; Urban, E. K.; Newman, K. 1982. The birds of Africa vol I. Academic Press, London.

Carss, D. N. 1994. Killing of piscivorous birds at Scottish fin fish farms, 1984-1987. Biological Conservation 68: 181-188.

del Hoyo, J.; Elliot, A.; Sargatal, J. 1992. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 1: Ostrich to Ducks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

Garthe, S.; Hüppop, O. 2004. Scaling possible adverse effects of marine wind farms on seabirds: developing and applying a vulnerability index. Journal of Applied Ecology 41(4): 724-734.

Gremillet, D. 1997. Catch per unit effort, foraging efficiency, and parental investment in breeding great cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo carbo). ICES Journal of Marine Science 54(4): 635-644.

Gremillet, D., Liu, H., Le Maho, Y. and Carss, D.N. 2003. Great cormorants and freshwater fish stocks: a pragmatic approach to an ecological issue. Cormoran 13(2 (supplement no.58)): 131-136.

Johnsgard, P. A. 1993. Cormorants, darters, and pelicans of the world. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington.

Kirby, J. S.; Holmes, J. S.; Sellers, R. M. 1996. Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo as fish predators: an appraisal of their conservation and management in Great Britain. Biological Conservation 75: 191-199.

Kuiken, T. 1999. Review of Newcastle disease in Cormorants. Waterbirds 22(3): 333-347.

Leopold, M.F., Van Damme, C.J.G. and Van der Weer, H.W. 1998. Diet of cormorants and the impact of cormorant predation on juvenile flatfish in the Dutch Wadden Sea. Journal of Sea Research 40(1-2): 93-107.

Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Nelson, J. B. 2005. Pelicans, cormorants and their relatives. Pelecanidae, Sulidae, Phalacrocoracidae, Anhingidae, Fregatidae, Phaethontidae. Oxford University Press, Oxford, U.K.

Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2009. Phalacrocorax carbo. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 22 May 2012.
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