Torgos tracheliotos

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	FALCONIFORMES	ACCIPITRIDAE

Scientific Name:

Torgos tracheliotos

Species Authority:

(Forster, 1791)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Lappet-faced Vulture
French	–	Vautour oricou

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Vulnerable C2a(ii) ver 3.1

Year Assessed:

2008

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Taylor, J., Butchart, S.

Contributor/s:

Hancock, P., Rondeau, G., Shimelis, A., Bowden, C., Hall, P., Shobrak, M.

Justification:
This species is classified as Vulnerable since only a small, declining population remains, owing primarily to poisoning and persecution, as well as ecosystem alterations.

History:

2007	–	Vulnerable
2004	–	Vulnerable
2000	–	Vulnerable

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Torgos tracheliotus breeds in Egypt, Senegal, Niger, Mauritania, Mali, Burkina Faso, Chad, Sudan, Ethiopia, Somalia, Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, South Africa, Swaziland, Saudi Arabia (an increasing population, in excess of 500 individuals^9,11), United Arab Emirates, Oman, Yemen and possibly Libya⁶. The species also occurs in The Gambia, northern Guinea, Côte d'Ivoire, Benin, Central African Republic and southern Angola¹⁶. It is no longer thought to breed in Côte d'Ivoire²⁶. It has been extinct in Algeria and Tunisia since the 1930s, and now only small populations remain in southern Egypt, and Mauritania⁸. The last records from Morocco concerned two birds in 1972¹⁶. It is considered likely to be extinct in Western Sahara, as it has not been recorded there since 1955¹⁶. In Nigeria, there has been a major decline since the late 1970s and it may now have been extirpated^2,16. It probably previously bred in Jordan³, and is considered extinct in Israel, where three birds remained until 1994¹⁶. The species was not recorded during surveys in 2004 in northern Mali and Niger along the same transects that yielded 96 birds in 1971-1973¹⁷. The combination of these results with comparable transect surveys from Burkina Faso indicate a decline in abundance of c.97% in rural areas and c.39% in national parks between 1969-1973 and 2003-2004²⁰. It is suffering a slow decline in southern Africa¹⁴, although the population in central Mozambique is probably stable²⁴. There are possibly 1,000 pairs (almost 3,000 individuals) in southern Africa, at least the same in east and north-east Africa, and possibly only c.500 pairs in West Africa and the Sahara, giving a total rough estimate of the African population of at least 8,000 individuals⁸.
Countries:	Native: Angola; Benin; Botswana; Burkina Faso; Cameroon; Central African Republic; Chad; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Djibouti; Egypt; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Gambia; Kenya; Malawi; Mali; Mauritania; Mozambique; Namibia; Niger; Oman; Rwanda; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Somalia; South Africa; Sudan; Swaziland; Tanzania, United Republic of; Uganda; United Arab Emirates; Yemen; Zambia; Zimbabwe Possibly extinct: Syrian Arab Republic Vagrant: Algeria; Burundi; France; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Morocco; Togo Present - origin uncertain: Nigeria
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	The African population is at least 8,000 individuals (Mundy et al. 1992), and there may be 500 in the Middle East.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	The species inhabits dry savannah, arid plains, deserts and open mountain slopes¹⁶, up to 3,500 m²⁵. In Ethiopia, it is also found at the edge of forests, having been recorded at Bonga forest and forest in Bale Mountains National Park in 2007, as well as the Afro-alpine habitats of the national park in 2005²⁵. It ranges widely when foraging⁴ and is mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcasses or their remains^7,8. It is also known to hunt, probably taking a variety of small reptiles, fish, birds and mammals, and has been observed apparently group-hunting flamingo Phoenicopterus chicks^18,19. It builds solitary nests (usually containing just one egg), often in Acacia (its distribution sometimes being limited by these trees' distribution¹⁴), but also in Balanites and Terminalia¹⁶. It does not breed until at least six years old, then fledging c.0.4 young/pair/year⁸. Ringing studies in Namibia have revealed a very low return rate¹⁵. The species's minimum home range is thought to be 8 km², and this can expand to 15 km² in some habitats¹⁶. In Mozambique, egg-laying occurs from late April until mid-August, with a peak in May and June²⁴.
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

The species inhabits dry savannah, arid plains, deserts and open mountain slopes¹⁶, up to 3,500 m²⁵. In Ethiopia, it is also found at the edge of forests, having been recorded at Bonga forest and forest in Bale Mountains National Park in 2007, as well as the Afro-alpine habitats of the national park in 2005²⁵. It ranges widely when foraging⁴ and is mainly a scavenger, feeding predominantly on any large carcasses or their remains^7,8. It is also known to hunt, probably taking a variety of small reptiles, fish, birds and mammals, and has been observed apparently group-hunting flamingo Phoenicopterus chicks^18,19. It builds solitary nests (usually containing just one egg), often in Acacia (its distribution sometimes being limited by these trees' distribution¹⁴), but also in Balanites and Terminalia¹⁶. It does not breed until at least six years old, then fledging c.0.4 young/pair/year⁸. Ringing studies in Namibia have revealed a very low return rate¹⁵. The species's minimum home range is thought to be 8 km², and this can expand to 15 km² in some habitats¹⁶. In Mozambique, egg-laying occurs from late April until mid-August, with a peak in May and June²⁴.

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Widespread accidental poisoning, largely due to strychnine used by many farmers for predator control, has contributed significantly to declines^2,4. It is also often mistakenly persecuted as a livestock predator²: one major deliberate poisoning incident killed 86 individuals in Namibia¹². Other major threats to the species include nest predation by humans, reduced food availability and electrocution¹⁶. Increasing use of agricultural pesticides may also be a problem for the species⁸, including those breeding at Tayma, Saudi Arabia¹⁶. Nest disturbance, to which it is extremely sensitive¹³, may be growing with an increase in forest and mountain side settlements in Ethiopia²⁵ and the increasing recreational use of off-road vehicles⁸. Breeding birds at Tayma could face disturbance from motorised vehicles in the desert¹⁶. The population collapse in West Africa may be a result of higher nest disturbance, local extinctions of wild ungulates through habitat modification and over-hunting, intensified cattle farming in which sick or dying animals are rarely abandoned, and an increase in accidental poisoning^17,20, although the latter threat, in particular, requires further study²⁰. National vaccination campaigns in West Africa have reduced illness in domestic livestock, and sick animals can now be sold off, rather than abandoned, due to the proliferation of markets and abattoirs²⁰. The species may be hunted for medicine and cultural reasons in West Africa, and some ethnic groups in the sub-region hunt vultures for food, though the impact on this species is unknown²⁰. In central Mozambique, the population has declined due to a scarcity of game and livestock following the armed conflict of the 1970s and 1980s, and the surviving population continues to be threatened by the over-exploitation of game by poachers²⁴. In Ethiopia, the principal threat to the species is habitat loss²⁵. In 2007, Diclofenac, a non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) often used for livestock, and which is fatal to Gyps spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses, was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania²⁷. NSAIDs are reportedly toxic to raptors, storks, cranes and owls, suggesting that vultures of other genera could be susceptible to its effects²⁷. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes²⁸ and exporting it to 15 African countries²⁷.

Major Threat(s):

Widespread accidental poisoning, largely due to strychnine used by many farmers for predator control, has contributed significantly to declines^2,4. It is also often mistakenly persecuted as a livestock predator²: one major deliberate poisoning incident killed 86 individuals in Namibia¹². Other major threats to the species include nest predation by humans, reduced food availability and electrocution¹⁶. Increasing use of agricultural pesticides may also be a problem for the species⁸, including those breeding at Tayma, Saudi Arabia¹⁶. Nest disturbance, to which it is extremely sensitive¹³, may be growing with an increase in forest and mountain side settlements in Ethiopia²⁵ and the increasing recreational use of off-road vehicles⁸. Breeding birds at Tayma could face disturbance from motorised vehicles in the desert¹⁶. The population collapse in West Africa may be a result of higher nest disturbance, local extinctions of wild ungulates through habitat modification and over-hunting, intensified cattle farming in which sick or dying animals are rarely abandoned, and an increase in accidental poisoning^17,20, although the latter threat, in particular, requires further study²⁰. National vaccination campaigns in West Africa have reduced illness in domestic livestock, and sick animals can now be sold off, rather than abandoned, due to the proliferation of markets and abattoirs²⁰. The species may be hunted for medicine and cultural reasons in West Africa, and some ethnic groups in the sub-region hunt vultures for food, though the impact on this species is unknown²⁰. In central Mozambique, the population has declined due to a scarcity of game and livestock following the armed conflict of the 1970s and 1980s, and the surviving population continues to be threatened by the over-exploitation of game by poachers²⁴. In Ethiopia, the principal threat to the species is habitat loss²⁵. In 2007, Diclofenac, a non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) often used for livestock, and which is fatal to Gyps spp. when ingested at livestock carcasses, was found to be on sale at a veterinary practice in Tanzania²⁷. NSAIDs are reportedly toxic to raptors, storks, cranes and owls, suggesting that vultures of other genera could be susceptible to its effects²⁷. In addition, it was reported that in Tanzania, a Brazilian manufacturer has been aggressively marketing the drug for veterinary purposes²⁸ and exporting it to 15 African countries²⁷.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. The species was put forward as a candidate for the CITES Review of Significant Trade in 2004²³. It breeds in a number of protected areas within its extensive range. Ecological research is ongoing, notably in Saudi Arabia⁹. Following a workshop, a five-year international action plan for the species was published in 2005, with the aims of stabilising or increasing its populations, improving knowledge of its distribution, population size and trends and minimising the impact of human activities at key sites¹⁶. A comprehensive study of the species in Botswana was planned for 2007²². In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of Diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania²⁷. Conservation Actions Proposed Organise coordinated surveys and monitoring throughout its range to clarify population size and decline rates. Conduct further ecological research^2,10,14. Initiate awareness campaigns aimed at farmers, local communities, developers and ecotourists to reduce mortality from persecution, accidental poisoning and disturbance^1,5,10,14,16. Identify important nesting areas¹⁶. Carry out research into the effects of nest disturbance¹⁶. Improve awareness amongst utilities and NGOs of hazardous pylon designs and suitable measures to prevent collisions through training courses and literature such as posters and best practice manuals¹⁶. Increase awareness amongst farmers of suitable reservoir and drinking trough modification methods¹⁶. Enforce legislation concerned with incorrect use of poisons and pesticides¹⁶. Carry out research into the impacts of different poisons across its range¹⁶. Study the impact of the species on livestock numbers and share information with stakeholders¹⁶. Enact legislation against the persecution of the species¹⁶. Encourage vulture feeding sites and the abandonment of livestock carcasses from death by natural causes¹⁶. Provide enforcement for existing nature reserves in West Africa and design of a new one in northern Mali¹⁷. In West Africa, determine the severity of accidental poisoning, hunting of the species for medicine and cultural reasons, hunting for food, and the threat from the development of powerlines²⁰. Complete a vulture census for West Africa²¹. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using Diclofenac for livestock²⁷. Discourage the use of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes in countries where this does not already take place²⁷. Lobby governments to outlaw the sale of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes²⁷.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix II. The species was put forward as a candidate for the CITES Review of Significant Trade in 2004²³. It breeds in a number of protected areas within its extensive range. Ecological research is ongoing, notably in Saudi Arabia⁹. Following a workshop, a five-year international action plan for the species was published in 2005, with the aims of stabilising or increasing its populations, improving knowledge of its distribution, population size and trends and minimising the impact of human activities at key sites¹⁶. A comprehensive study of the species in Botswana was planned for 2007²². In 2007, a survey began to establish the extent of Diclofenac use for veterinary purposes in Tanzania²⁷.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Organise coordinated surveys and monitoring throughout its range to clarify population size and decline rates. Conduct further ecological research^2,10,14. Initiate awareness campaigns aimed at farmers, local communities, developers and ecotourists to reduce mortality from persecution, accidental poisoning and disturbance^1,5,10,14,16. Identify important nesting areas¹⁶. Carry out research into the effects of nest disturbance¹⁶. Improve awareness amongst utilities and NGOs of hazardous pylon designs and suitable measures to prevent collisions through training courses and literature such as posters and best practice manuals¹⁶. Increase awareness amongst farmers of suitable reservoir and drinking trough modification methods¹⁶. Enforce legislation concerned with incorrect use of poisons and pesticides¹⁶. Carry out research into the impacts of different poisons across its range¹⁶. Study the impact of the species on livestock numbers and share information with stakeholders¹⁶. Enact legislation against the persecution of the species¹⁶. Encourage vulture feeding sites and the abandonment of livestock carcasses from death by natural causes¹⁶. Provide enforcement for existing nature reserves in West Africa and design of a new one in northern Mali¹⁷. In West Africa, determine the severity of accidental poisoning, hunting of the species for medicine and cultural reasons, hunting for food, and the threat from the development of powerlines²⁰. Complete a vulture census for West Africa²¹. Raise awareness amongst pastoralists of the dangers of using Diclofenac for livestock²⁷. Discourage the use of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes in countries where this does not already take place²⁷. Lobby governments to outlaw the sale of Diclofenac for veterinary purposes²⁷.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2008. Torgos tracheliotos. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 10 February 2012.
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