Aegypius monachus

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	FALCONIFORMES	ACCIPITRIDAE

Scientific Name:

Aegypius monachus

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1766)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Black Vulture, Cinereous Vulture, Eurasian Black Vulture
French	–	Vautour moine
Spanish	–	Buitre Negro

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Near Threatened ver 3.1

Year Published:

2008

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Taylor, J., Butchart, S., Pople, R., Burfield, I.

Contributor/s:

Baral, H., Katzner, T., Burfield, I., Yasmeen, R., Batbayar, N., Khan, A., Galushin, V., McGrady, M., Fremuth, W., Parveen, A., Brunner, A.

Justification:
This species has a moderately small population which appears to be suffering an ongoing decline in its Asiatic strongholds, despite the fact that in parts of Europe numbers are now increasing. Consequently it qualifies as Near Threatened.

History:

2006	–	Near Threatened
2004	–	Near Threatened

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Aegypius monachus breeds in Spain, Bulgaria, Greece, Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Ukraine, Russia, Uzbekistan, Kazakhstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyztan, Iran, Afghanistan, north India, northern Pakistan⁹, Mongolia and mainland China, with a small reintroduced population in France. It may occasionally breed in Portugal, F.Y.R.O. Macedonia and Albania, but it no longer breeds in Slovenia, Italy, Cyprus, Moldova and Romania. There are wintering areas in Sudan, Saudi Arabia, Iran, Pakistan, north-west India, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Lao People's Democratic Republic, North Korea and South Korea. Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe^6,7 and 5,500-8,000⁷ pairs in Asia. In Europe, populations are increasing in Spain (minimum 1,500 pairs⁷), Portugal and France, and are stable in Greece and Macedonia⁶. However, numbers are decreasing in Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Russia, Turkey and the Ukraine⁶. Overall, the European population underwent a large increase between 1990 and 2000, possibly >30% overall^6,8. Much less information is available regarding the status and population trends of the species in Asia, where the bulk of the global population resides. There are probably over 1,000 pairs in the Asian part of the former Soviet Union and a further 1,760 pairs in China⁴. It appears that breeding populations are more or less stable in Mongolia¹² (where the species is described as common) and Pakistan⁹ (where it is described as scarce), although fluctuations in distribution and breeding success occur, and populations within some nature reserves in Mongolia (where there are few domestic livestock) are declining¹². In Kazakhstan, however, populations of all vulture species are in severe decline, owing to a precipitous decline in their main food resource, the Saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica)¹³. This trend may be mirrored in a number of other central Asian countries where populations of both domesticated livestock and wild ungulates have declined greatly in recent years¹⁴. Very little is known about population trends on its wintering grounds, although wintering populations appear to be declining in Nepal¹⁰ and increasing in India¹¹ and South Korea¹⁶.
Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bhutan; Bulgaria; China; Croatia; Georgia; Greece; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Kazakhstan; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Lebanon; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Mongolia; Montenegro; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan; Portugal; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Saudi Arabia; Serbia; Spain; Sudan; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam Reintroduced: France Vagrant: Austria; Bangladesh; Belarus; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Cambodia; Egypt; Germany; Gibraltar; Hungary; Japan; Jordan; Latvia; Malaysia; Netherlands; Oman; Poland; Slovakia; Switzerland; Taiwan, Province of China; Thailand; Tunisia; Yemen Present - origin uncertain: Albania; Morocco
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Its global population is estimated to number 7,200-10,000 pairs, with 1,700-1,900 pairs in Europe (BirdLife International 2004; Anon. 2004b) and 5,500-8,000 pairs in Asia (Anon. 2004b).
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	It inhabits forested areas in hills and mountains at 300-1,400 m in Spain, but higher in Asia, where it also occupies scrub and arid and semi-arid alpine steppe and grasslands up to 4,500m⁵. It forages over many kinds of open terrain, including forest, bare mountains, steppe and open grasslands. Nests are built in trees or on rocks (the latter extremely rarely in Europe but more frequently in parts of Asia), often aggregated in very loose colonies or nuclei. Its diet consists mainly of carrion from medium-sized or large mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items. Live prey is rarely taken. In Mongolia, at least, the species is reliant on livestock numbers for successful nesting¹⁵.
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

It inhabits forested areas in hills and mountains at 300-1,400 m in Spain, but higher in Asia, where it also occupies scrub and arid and semi-arid alpine steppe and grasslands up to 4,500m⁵. It forages over many kinds of open terrain, including forest, bare mountains, steppe and open grasslands. Nests are built in trees or on rocks (the latter extremely rarely in Europe but more frequently in parts of Asia), often aggregated in very loose colonies or nuclei. Its diet consists mainly of carrion from medium-sized or large mammal carcasses, although snakes and insects have been recorded as food items. Live prey is rarely taken. In Mongolia, at least, the species is reliant on livestock numbers for successful nesting¹⁵.

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The two main threats to the species are direct mortality caused by humans (either accidentally or deliberately) and decreasing availability of food. The main cause of unnatural death is the use of poisoned baits for predator extermination⁷, although shooting and destruction of nests also occur^7,12. Shooting and poisoning are increasing in Mongolia¹², and many birds are trapped or shot in China for their feathers. There are fears that veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinction of several Gyps vultures in India, may have a negative impact on A. monachus¹², particularly as increasing numbers of the species are wintering in northern India¹⁴. A study in central Spain during 2003-2005 found high concentrations of antibiotics in blood samples from 57% of nestlings tested¹⁸. The same study found two antibiotics in the liver samples of all dead nestlings that were tested. It is hypothesised that antibiotic residues, particularly quinolones, cause liver and kidney damage, and deplete lymphoid organs and alter bacteria flora, facilitating pathogenic bacterial and fungal infections¹⁸. In Europe, decreased food availability was formerly caused by European Union legislation on carcass disposal⁷; however, recently passed regulations will allow the operation of feeding stations for scavengers²⁰. In eastern Europe and central Asia, particularly in the former Soviet Union, changes in agricultural practices and human migration from the countryside to the cities have greatly reduced numbers of domestic livestock. In Georgia and Armenia, declines may be linked to the loss of subsidies for sheep-herding in the post-Soviet era¹⁹. Additionally, there have been steep declines in many populations of wild ungulates which provide a major food source for the species. The Saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica), for example, numbered over one million individuals ten years ago, and has now been reduced to a population of 30,000-40,000 owing to uncontrolled hunting and severe winters¹³. In South Korea, food limitation is a serious problem such that the species relies on supplementary food¹⁶. Habitat loss is also thought to be important⁷.

Major Threat(s):

The two main threats to the species are direct mortality caused by humans (either accidentally or deliberately) and decreasing availability of food. The main cause of unnatural death is the use of poisoned baits for predator extermination⁷, although shooting and destruction of nests also occur^7,12. Shooting and poisoning are increasing in Mongolia¹², and many birds are trapped or shot in China for their feathers. There are fears that veterinary application of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug Diclofenac, which has caused the near-extinction of several Gyps vultures in India, may have a negative impact on A. monachus¹², particularly as increasing numbers of the species are wintering in northern India¹⁴. A study in central Spain during 2003-2005 found high concentrations of antibiotics in blood samples from 57% of nestlings tested¹⁸. The same study found two antibiotics in the liver samples of all dead nestlings that were tested. It is hypothesised that antibiotic residues, particularly quinolones, cause liver and kidney damage, and deplete lymphoid organs and alter bacteria flora, facilitating pathogenic bacterial and fungal infections¹⁸. In Europe, decreased food availability was formerly caused by European Union legislation on carcass disposal⁷; however, recently passed regulations will allow the operation of feeding stations for scavengers²⁰. In eastern Europe and central Asia, particularly in the former Soviet Union, changes in agricultural practices and human migration from the countryside to the cities have greatly reduced numbers of domestic livestock. In Georgia and Armenia, declines may be linked to the loss of subsidies for sheep-herding in the post-Soviet era¹⁹. Additionally, there have been steep declines in many populations of wild ungulates which provide a major food source for the species. The Saiga antelope (Saiga tartarica), for example, numbered over one million individuals ten years ago, and has now been reduced to a population of 30,000-40,000 owing to uncontrolled hunting and severe winters¹³. In South Korea, food limitation is a serious problem such that the species relies on supplementary food¹⁶. Habitat loss is also thought to be important⁷.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway The EU Birds Directive has contributed to the recovery and conservation of the species in Europe, particularly Spain, where the population has increased from an estimated 290 pairs in 1984 to a minimum of 1,511 pairs at present⁷. Co-operation between Spanish government agencies and conservationists under the 'Antidote Programme' also appears to have been effective in mitigating the effects of poisoned baits. Both the Spanish and the Andalusian Governments have produced anti-poisoning strategies, but the former still remain to be financially supported while the latter need more decisive official endorsement. A reintroduction project in France has resulted in the establishment of a small breeding population with good prospects. Supplementary feeding programmes have been initiated in Spain and France to provide a safe, poison-free food source, although there are concerns that the species may be not very prone to feed at conventional feeding stations. In the Balkans, the species has only one stable colony in the Dadia forest reserve in northern Greece, where WWF has long been involved. Supplementary food is also provided in Bulgaria for breeding birds¹⁷ and South Korea during the winter, which may be the factor attacting birds from Mongolia¹⁶. In eastern Europe and central Asia, fewer conservation actions are known, although the species occurs within a number of protected areas in the region. The Balkan Vulture Action Plan aims to transfer expertise and technology relating to the conservation of the species from western to eastern parts of Europe⁷. Conservation Actions Proposed Survey to determine the species's status and population trends on breeding grounds outside Europe and on wintering grounds⁷. Research threats, particularly the decline in abundance of prey species. Carry out reintroductions to link up the western and the eastern sub-areas of the present range, following the recommendations of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Black Vulture Conservation Foundation. Restore wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus populations in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (Spain) as this may help to increase food availability, particularly during the breeding period. Promote cooperation and information exchange among people working on the species, both at a national and international level. Strengthen and enforce legislation regulating trade in pesticides that are used to poison meat baits. Increase the rate of prosecution and the severity of judicial sentences for illegal poisoning.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
The EU Birds Directive has contributed to the recovery and conservation of the species in Europe, particularly Spain, where the population has increased from an estimated 290 pairs in 1984 to a minimum of 1,511 pairs at present⁷. Co-operation between Spanish government agencies and conservationists under the 'Antidote Programme' also appears to have been effective in mitigating the effects of poisoned baits. Both the Spanish and the Andalusian Governments have produced anti-poisoning strategies, but the former still remain to be financially supported while the latter need more decisive official endorsement. A reintroduction project in France has resulted in the establishment of a small breeding population with good prospects. Supplementary feeding programmes have been initiated in Spain and France to provide a safe, poison-free food source, although there are concerns that the species may be not very prone to feed at conventional feeding stations. In the Balkans, the species has only one stable colony in the Dadia forest reserve in northern Greece, where WWF has long been involved. Supplementary food is also provided in Bulgaria for breeding birds¹⁷ and South Korea during the winter, which may be the factor attacting birds from Mongolia¹⁶. In eastern Europe and central Asia, fewer conservation actions are known, although the species occurs within a number of protected areas in the region. The Balkan Vulture Action Plan aims to transfer expertise and technology relating to the conservation of the species from western to eastern parts of Europe⁷.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Survey to determine the species's status and population trends on breeding grounds outside Europe and on wintering grounds⁷. Research threats, particularly the decline in abundance of prey species. Carry out reintroductions to link up the western and the eastern sub-areas of the present range, following the recommendations of The World Conservation Union (IUCN) and the Black Vulture Conservation Foundation. Restore wild rabbit Oryctolagus cuniculus populations in the Iberian Peninsula and the Balearic Islands (Spain) as this may help to increase food availability, particularly during the breeding period. Promote cooperation and information exchange among people working on the species, both at a national and international level. Strengthen and enforce legislation regulating trade in pesticides that are used to poison meat baits. Increase the rate of prosecution and the severity of judicial sentences for illegal poisoning.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2008. Aegypius monachus. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 26 May 2012.
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