Gyps bengalensis

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	FALCONIFORMES	ACCIPITRIDAE

Scientific Name:

Gyps bengalensis

Species Authority:

(Gmelin, 1788)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Asian White-backed Vulture, Oriental White-backed Vulture, White-backed Vulture, White-rumped Vulture
Spanish	–	Buitre Dorsiblanco Bengalí, Buitre Leonado Bengalés

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Critically Endangered A2bce+4bce ver 3.1

Year Published:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Calvert, R., Symes, A., Butchart, S.

Contributor/s:

Clements, T., Khan, M., Rainey, H., Cuthbert, R., Htin Hla, T., Gilbert, M., Prakash, V., Riseborough, R.

Justification:
This species qualifies as Critically Endangered because it has suffered an extremely rapid population decline primarily as a result of feeding on carcasses of animals treated with the veterinary drug diclofenac.

History:

2009	–	Critically Endangered
2008	–	Critically Endangered
2004	–	Critically Endangered
2000	–	Critically Endangered

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Gyps bengalensis occurs in Pakistan, India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar, Thailand, Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam, and may be extinct in southern China and Malaysia. It has been recorded from south-east Afghanistan and Iran where its status is currently unknown. As recently as 1985 the species was described as "possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world"⁵. However, it disappeared from most of South-East Asia in the early 20th century and the only viable populations in the region are found in Myanmar and Cambodia, mainly in the Stung Treng province (both probably in the low hundreds of individuals)^6,7,8,30. Given the lack of intensive agriculture and associated chemical use in South-East Asia and the continued presence of large areas of suitable habitat for the species, the primary reason behind its decline in this part of its range is thought to be the demise of large ungulate populations and improvements in animal husbandry resulting in a lack of available carcasses for vultures^7,8. Since the mid-1990s, it has suffered a catastrophic decline (over 99%) across the Indian Subcontinent (the majority of its historic range), first noticed in Keoladeo National Park, India², but mirrored in Pakistan¹⁴ and Nepal¹⁹, to the point that the species is highly threatened with extinction. Extensive research has identified the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID), diclofenac, to be the cause behind this rapid population collapse^9,10,11,12. This drug, used to treat domestic livestock, is ingested by vultures feeding on their carcasses leading to renal failure causing visceral gout^10,12,14,15. Declines in India between 2000-2007 averaged 43.9% per year²², and ranged between 11%-61% in Punjab province, Pakistan over the same period²³, while surveys of 23 known colonies in Punjab province in 2006 found a total of only 37 breeding pairs²³. Diclofenac is apparently entirely absent in Cambodia, adding greater importance to that remaining small population (171 counted at vulture restaurants in 2008)²⁸.
Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Bhutan; Cambodia; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Myanmar; Nepal; Pakistan; Thailand; Viet Nam Vagrant: Brunei Darussalam; Russian Federation
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Formerly described as possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world, this species global population almost certainly numbered several million individuals. However, following dramatic declines through the 1990's across its range its global population is now estimated to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals.
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Population:

Formerly described as possibly the most abundant large bird of prey in the world, this species global population almost certainly numbered several million individuals. However, following dramatic declines through the 1990's across its range its global population is now estimated to fall within the band 2,500-9,999 individuals.

Population Trend:

Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	It occurs mostly in plains and less frequently in hilly regions where it utilises light woodland, villages, cities, and open areas. It feeds on carrion, both putrid and fresh. While feeding considerable aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks. It breeds in colonies in tall trees, often near human habitation. Movements are poorly known, although satellite-tagged birds have shown that they will forage over a vast range. The degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

It occurs mostly in plains and less frequently in hilly regions where it utilises light woodland, villages, cities, and open areas. It feeds on carrion, both putrid and fresh. While feeding considerable aggregations can form, and regular communal roost sites are used. It is social and usually found in conspecific flocks. It breeds in colonies in tall trees, often near human habitation. Movements are poorly known, although satellite-tagged birds have shown that they will forage over a vast range. The degree of connectivity of apparently separate populations is not known. Vultures also play a key role in the wider landscape as providers of ecosystem services, and were previously heavily relied upon to help dispose of animal and human remains in India.

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	By mid-2000, Gyps vultures were being found dead and dying in Nepal, Pakistan, and throughout India, and major declines and local extirpations were being reported. The anti-inflammatory veterinary drug diclofenac, used to treat domestic livestock, has been identified as the cause of mortality, with renal failure resulting in visceral gout in the vast majority of examined vultures^10,11,12,14. Modelling has shown that to cause the observed rate of decline in Gyps vultures, just one in 760 livestock carcasses need contain diclofenac residues⁹. Despite awareness programmes to educate locals about the association between diclofenac and vulture mortality, a survey in Nepal indicated that the vast majority of people still do not link diclofenac use to a decline in vulture populations³¹, potentially leading to a slower uptake of meloxicam. A second veterinary drug in use in India, ketoprofen, has also recently been identified to be lethal to the species, and population modelling indicates that it may be present in sufficient concentrations to also cause population declines³³. Other likely contributory factors are changes in human consumption and processing of dead livestock, non-target poisoning³⁵, avian malaria³² and pesticide use, but these are probably of minor significance. In South-East Asia, the near-total disappearance of the species pre-dated the present crisis, and probably resulted from the collapse of large wild ungulate populations and improved management of deceased livestock⁷. One study recorded that the sex of fledglings, the sex of dead adults and the sex of adults with visceral gout were all male-biased which may lead to problems in the future²⁹.

Major Threat(s):

By mid-2000, Gyps vultures were being found dead and dying in Nepal, Pakistan, and throughout India, and major declines and local extirpations were being reported. The anti-inflammatory veterinary drug diclofenac, used to treat domestic livestock, has been identified as the cause of mortality, with renal failure resulting in visceral gout in the vast majority of examined vultures^10,11,12,14. Modelling has shown that to cause the observed rate of decline in Gyps vultures, just one in 760 livestock carcasses need contain diclofenac residues⁹. Despite awareness programmes to educate locals about the association between diclofenac and vulture mortality, a survey in Nepal indicated that the vast majority of people still do not link diclofenac use to a decline in vulture populations³¹, potentially leading to a slower uptake of meloxicam. A second veterinary drug in use in India, ketoprofen, has also recently been identified to be lethal to the species, and population modelling indicates that it may be present in sufficient concentrations to also cause population declines³³. Other likely contributory factors are changes in human consumption and processing of dead livestock, non-target poisoning³⁵, avian malaria³² and pesticide use, but these are probably of minor significance. In South-East Asia, the near-total disappearance of the species pre-dated the present crisis, and probably resulted from the collapse of large wild ungulate populations and improved management of deceased livestock⁷. One study recorded that the sex of fledglings, the sex of dead adults and the sex of adults with visceral gout were all male-biased which may lead to problems in the future²⁹.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. There has been a proposal to add the species to the protected species list of the 1973 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in Nepal. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian Subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005^13,17, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac which has been tested on a number of species including Gyps vultures with no apparent ill-effects²⁵. In 2008, the Indian government ordered a crackdown on companies selling diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'²⁷. A study of 11 administrative districts in Nepal found diclofenac use dropped by 90% since 2006 following the introduction of measures to reduce its use²⁴. In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug was due to be outlawed there during the first half of 2011³⁶. Vulture restaurants are increasingly used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range, particularly Cambodia, to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research. The exchange of diclofenac with meloxicam near breeding colonies is taking place in Nepal in combination with diversionary feeding with diclofenac-free carcasses. Diversionary feeding has been shown to reduce but not eliminate vulture mortality from diclofenac poisoning, and uncertainty over the movements of Asian Gyps vultures makes the effectiveness of measures such as these uncertain²⁵. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., to aid development of suitable conservation strategies for the species⁴. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that vultures provide¹⁶. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs²⁰. Captive breeding efforts are ongoing and met with success when two chicks hatched in early 2007 at a breeding centre in Pinjore, Haryana^21,34. Three more birds hatched in 2009³⁴. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive flocks that will ensure the full geographical spread of the species is represented in captive breeding efforts¹⁸. By April 2008, there were 88 in captivity at three breeding centres in India, as well as 11 at a centre established by WWF-Pakistan and 14 in captivity in Nepal²⁵. During 2009, these numbers increased to 120 in India, 43 in Nepal and 14 in Pakistan³⁴. In late 2009, trials of artificial incubation methods were due to start soon³⁴. Captive breeding centres often receive vultures that have been found poisoned and then rehabilitated by rescue centres such as the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Assam, which is run by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Wildlife Trust of India³⁵. Conservation Actions Proposed Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Continue to measure the frequency of diclofenac-treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar and survey southern India where it is hoped vulture populations may not have crashed to the same extent that they have in the rest of the Subcontinent. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres with the aim of holding at least 150 pairs of each species in captivity^25,26. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. It has been reported from many protected areas across its range. There has been a proposal to add the species to the protected species list of the 1973 National Parks and Wildlife Conservation Act in Nepal. The Indian government has now passed a bill banning the manufacture of the veterinary drug diclofenac that has caused the rapid population decline across the Indian Subcontinent; their aim was to phase out its use by late 2005^13,17, although its sale has not been banned and it is likely to remain in widespread use for several years. Similar laws banning import and manufacture of diclofenac are now in place in Nepal and Pakistan. Efforts to replace diclofenac with a suitable alternative are ongoing; drug companies have now developed meloxicam, an alternative to diclofenac which has been tested on a number of species including Gyps vultures with no apparent ill-effects²⁵. In 2008, the Indian government ordered a crackdown on companies selling diclofenac. A letter from the Drug Controller General of India warned more than 70 drugs firms not to sell the veterinary form of diclofenac, and to mark human diclofenac containers 'not for veterinary use'²⁷. A study of 11 administrative districts in Nepal found diclofenac use dropped by 90% since 2006 following the introduction of measures to reduce its use²⁴. In October 2010, the government of Bangladesh banned the production of diclofenac for use in cattle, and the distribution and sale of the drug was due to be outlawed there during the first half of 2011³⁶. Vulture restaurants are increasingly used as ecotourism attractions in parts of the species's range, particularly Cambodia, to raise awareness and fund supplementary feeding programmes and research. The exchange of diclofenac with meloxicam near breeding colonies is taking place in Nepal in combination with diversionary feeding with diclofenac-free carcasses. Diversionary feeding has been shown to reduce but not eliminate vulture mortality from diclofenac poisoning, and uncertainty over the movements of Asian Gyps vultures makes the effectiveness of measures such as these uncertain²⁵. Birds have been satellite tagged in various parts of their range to improve understanding of their movements, foraging range, site fidelity etc., to aid development of suitable conservation strategies for the species⁴. Socioeconomic surveys in Nepal have shown that local people are strongly in favour of vulture conservation because of the associated ecological services that vultures provide¹⁶. The Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop in 2004 gave a comprehensive list of recommendations including establishing a minimum of three captive breeding centres each capable of holding 25 pairs²⁰. Captive breeding efforts are ongoing and met with success when two chicks hatched in early 2007 at a breeding centre in Pinjore, Haryana^21,34. Three more birds hatched in 2009³⁴. The centre is part of a captive breeding programme established by the RSPB and Bombay Natural History Society. A website has been set up to allow researchers to contribute data on known colonies to identify founder individuals for captive flocks that will ensure the full geographical spread of the species is represented in captive breeding efforts¹⁸. By April 2008, there were 88 in captivity at three breeding centres in India, as well as 11 at a centre established by WWF-Pakistan and 14 in captivity in Nepal²⁵. During 2009, these numbers increased to 120 in India, 43 in Nepal and 14 in Pakistan³⁴. In late 2009, trials of artificial incubation methods were due to start soon³⁴. Captive breeding centres often receive vultures that have been found poisoned and then rehabilitated by rescue centres such as the Centre for Wildlife Rehabilitation and Conservation, Assam, which is run by the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) and the Wildlife Trust of India³⁵.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Identify the location and number of remaining individuals and identify action required to prevent extinction. Continue to measure the frequency of diclofenac-treated carcasses available to vultures. Support the ban on the veterinary use of diclofenac, and support species management or restoration, as needed. Initiate public awareness and public support programmes. Monitor remaining populations, in particular replicate conservation and research activities that have been implemented in Cambodia in Myanmar and survey southern India where it is hoped vulture populations may not have crashed to the same extent that they have in the rest of the Subcontinent. Provide supplementary food sources where necessary for food-limited populations in South-East Asia. Support captive breeding efforts at a number of separate centres with the aim of holding at least 150 pairs of each species in captivity^25,26. Promote the immediate adoption of meloxicam as an alternative to diclofenac. Test other non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) to identify additional safe alternative drugs to diclofenac and also other toxic ones.

Bibliography [top]

	Anon. 2003. Vulture death mystery explained? The Babbler: BirdLife in Indochina 2(2): 7. Anon. 2008. Local increase in vultures thanks to diclofenac campaign in Nepal. Buceros 13(2): 5. Arshad, M.; Chaudhary, M. J. I.; Wink, M. 2009. High mortality and sex ratio imbalance in a critically declining Oriental White-backed Vulture population (Gyps bengalensis). Journal of Ornithology 150(2): 495-503. Baral, N.; Gautam, R.; Tamang, B. 2005. Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur Valley, Nepal. Forktail 21: 87-91. BirdLife International. 2001. Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K. BirdLife International. 2008. Drugs firms told to do more to prevent vulture extinctions. Available at: #http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2008/08/indian_drug_announcemment.html#. Bombay Natural History Society. 2004. Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop. Buceros: 1-48. Ellis, C. 2004. Of Gyps vultures, gypsies and satellite technology. Peregrine Fund Newsletter no 35: 14-15. Gautam, R.; Tamang, B.;Baral, N. 2003. Ecological studies on White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur valley, Palpa, Nepal. Gilbert, M.; Watson, R. T.; Virani, M. Z.; Oaks, J. L.; Ahmed, S.; Chaudhry, M. J. I.; Arshad, M.; Mahmood, S.; Ali, A.; Khan, A. A. 2006. Rapid population declines and mortality clusters in three Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies in Pakistan due to diclofenac poisoning. Oryx 40(4): 388-399. Green, R.E.; Newton, I.; Shultz, S.; Cunningham, A. A.; Gilbert, M.; Pain, D.J.; Prakash, V. 2004. Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 793-800. Hance, I. 2009. Seven White-rumped Vultures found dead in Cambodia. The Babbler: BirdLife in Indochina: 14. Houston, D. C. 1985. Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis). In: Newton, I.; Chancellor, R. D. (ed.), Conservation studies of raptors, pp. 456-466. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, U.K. Htin Hla, T. 2003. Preliminary investigation of White-rumped Vultures (Gyps bengalensis) in Southern Shan states Myanmar. Johnson, J. A.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Asim, M.; Mindell, D. P. 2008. Temporal genetic analysis of the critically endangered oriental White-backed Vulture in Pakistan. Biological Conservation 141(9): 2403-2409. Murn, C.; Khan, U.; Farid, F. 2008. Vulture populations in Pakistan and the Gyps vulture restoration project. Vulture News: 35-43. Naidoo, V.; Wolter, K.; Cromarty, D.; Diekmann, M.; Duncan, N.; Meharg, A. A.; Taggart, M. A.; Venter, L.; Cuthbert, R. 2010. Toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Gyps vultures: a new threat from ketoprofen. Biology Letters 6(3): 339-341. Oaks, J. L.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Watson, R. T.; Meteyer, C. U.; Rideout, B. A.; Shivaprasad, H. L.; Ahmed, S.; Chaudhry, M.J. I.; Arshad, M.; Mahmood, S.; Ali, A.; Khan, A. A. 2004. Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427(6975): 630-633. Oaks, J. L.; Meteyer, C. U.; Rideout, B. A.; Shivaprasad, H. L.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Watson, R. T.; Khan, A. A. 2004. Diagnostic investigation of vulture mortality: the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac is associated with visceral gout. Falco: 13-14. Pain, D. J.; Bowden, C. G. R.; Cunningham, A. A.; Cuthbert, R.; Das, D.; Gilbert, M.; Jakati, R. D.; Jhala, Y.; Khan, A. A.; Naidoo, V.; Oaks, J. L.; Parry-Jones, J.; Prakash, V.; Rahmani, A.; Ranade, S. P.; Baral, H. S.; Senacha, K. R.; Saravanan, S. 2008. The race to prevent the extinction of South Asian vultures. Bird Conservation International 18: S30-S48. Paudel, S. 2008. Vanishing vultures and diclofenac prevalence in Lumbini IBA. Danphe 17(2): 1-3. Poharkar, A.; Reddy, P. A.; Gadge, V. A.; Kolte, S.; Nurkure, N.; Shivaji, S. 2009. Is malaria the cause for decline of the Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)? Current Science 96(4): 553-558. Prakash, V.; Green, R. E.; Pain, D. J.; Ranade, S. P.; Saravanan, S.; Prakash, N. 2007. Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 104(2): 127-133. Prakash, V.; Pain, D. J.; Cunningham, A. A.; Donald, P. F.; Prakash, N.; Verma, A.; Gargi, R.; Sivakumar, S.; Rahmani, A. R. 2003. Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biological Conservation 109: 381-390. Shultz, S.; Baral, H.S.; Charman, S.; Cunningham, A. A.; Das, D.; Ghalasi, G. R.; Goudar, M.S.; Green, R.E.; Jones, A.; Nighot, P.; Pain, D.J.; Prakash, V. 2004. Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 271: S458-S460. Swan, G.E.; Cuthbert, R.; Quevedo, M.; Green, R.E.; Pain, D.J.; Bartels, P.; Cunningham, A. A.; Duncan, N.; Meharg, A. A.; Oaks, J. L.; Parry-Jones, J.; Taggart, M. A.; Verdoorn, G.; Wolter, K. 2006. Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures. Biology Letters: 279-282. Swan, G., Naidoo, V., Cuthbert, R., Green, R.E., Pain, D.J., Swarup, D., Prakash, V., Taggart, M., Bekker, L., Das, D., Diekmann, J., Diekmann, M., Killian, E., Meharg, A., Chandra Patra, R., Saini, M. and Wolter, K. 2006. Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology 4(3): 395-402. Swan, G.; Naidoo, V.; Cuthbert, R.; Green, R.E.; Pain, D.J.; Swarup, D.; Prakash, V.; Taggart, M.; Bekker, L.; Das, D.; Diekmann, J.; Diekmann, M.; Killian, E.; Meharg, A.; Patra, R.C.; Saini, M.; Wolter, K. 2006. Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology: e66.

Anon. 2003. Vulture death mystery explained? The Babbler: BirdLife in Indochina 2(2): 7.

Anon. 2008. Local increase in vultures thanks to diclofenac campaign in Nepal. Buceros 13(2): 5.

Arshad, M.; Chaudhary, M. J. I.; Wink, M. 2009. High mortality and sex ratio imbalance in a critically declining Oriental White-backed Vulture population (Gyps bengalensis). Journal of Ornithology 150(2): 495-503.

Baral, N.; Gautam, R.; Tamang, B. 2005. Population status and breeding ecology of White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur Valley, Nepal. Forktail 21: 87-91.

BirdLife International. 2001. Threatened birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge, U.K.

BirdLife International. 2008. Drugs firms told to do more to prevent vulture extinctions. Available at: #http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2008/08/indian_drug_announcemment.html#.

Bombay Natural History Society. 2004. Report of the International South Asian Vulture Recovery Plan Workshop. Buceros: 1-48.

Ellis, C. 2004. Of Gyps vultures, gypsies and satellite technology. Peregrine Fund Newsletter no 35: 14-15.

Gautam, R.; Tamang, B.;Baral, N. 2003. Ecological studies on White-rumped Vulture Gyps bengalensis in Rampur valley, Palpa, Nepal.

Gilbert, M.; Watson, R. T.; Virani, M. Z.; Oaks, J. L.; Ahmed, S.; Chaudhry, M. J. I.; Arshad, M.; Mahmood, S.; Ali, A.; Khan, A. A. 2006. Rapid population declines and mortality clusters in three Oriental White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis colonies in Pakistan due to diclofenac poisoning. Oryx 40(4): 388-399.

Green, R.E.; Newton, I.; Shultz, S.; Cunningham, A. A.; Gilbert, M.; Pain, D.J.; Prakash, V. 2004. Diclofenac poisoning as a cause of vulture population declines across the Indian subcontinent. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 793-800.

Hance, I. 2009. Seven White-rumped Vultures found dead in Cambodia. The Babbler: BirdLife in Indochina: 14.

Houston, D. C. 1985. Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis). In: Newton, I.; Chancellor, R. D. (ed.), Conservation studies of raptors, pp. 456-466. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, U.K.

Htin Hla, T. 2003. Preliminary investigation of White-rumped Vultures (Gyps bengalensis) in Southern Shan states Myanmar.

Johnson, J. A.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Asim, M.; Mindell, D. P. 2008. Temporal genetic analysis of the critically endangered oriental White-backed Vulture in Pakistan. Biological Conservation 141(9): 2403-2409.

Murn, C.; Khan, U.; Farid, F. 2008. Vulture populations in Pakistan and the Gyps vulture restoration project. Vulture News: 35-43.

Naidoo, V.; Wolter, K.; Cromarty, D.; Diekmann, M.; Duncan, N.; Meharg, A. A.; Taggart, M. A.; Venter, L.; Cuthbert, R. 2010. Toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Gyps vultures: a new threat from ketoprofen. Biology Letters 6(3): 339-341.

Oaks, J. L.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Watson, R. T.; Meteyer, C. U.; Rideout, B. A.; Shivaprasad, H. L.; Ahmed, S.; Chaudhry, M.J. I.; Arshad, M.; Mahmood, S.; Ali, A.; Khan, A. A. 2004. Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature 427(6975): 630-633.

Oaks, J. L.; Meteyer, C. U.; Rideout, B. A.; Shivaprasad, H. L.; Gilbert, M.; Virani, M. Z.; Watson, R. T.; Khan, A. A. 2004. Diagnostic investigation of vulture mortality: the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac is associated with visceral gout. Falco: 13-14.

Pain, D. J.; Bowden, C. G. R.; Cunningham, A. A.; Cuthbert, R.; Das, D.; Gilbert, M.; Jakati, R. D.; Jhala, Y.; Khan, A. A.; Naidoo, V.; Oaks, J. L.; Parry-Jones, J.; Prakash, V.; Rahmani, A.; Ranade, S. P.; Baral, H. S.; Senacha, K. R.; Saravanan, S. 2008. The race to prevent the extinction of South Asian vultures. Bird Conservation International 18: S30-S48.

Paudel, S. 2008. Vanishing vultures and diclofenac prevalence in Lumbini IBA. Danphe 17(2): 1-3.

Poharkar, A.; Reddy, P. A.; Gadge, V. A.; Kolte, S.; Nurkure, N.; Shivaji, S. 2009. Is malaria the cause for decline of the Indian White-backed Vulture (Gyps bengalensis)? Current Science 96(4): 553-558.

Prakash, V.; Green, R. E.; Pain, D. J.; Ranade, S. P.; Saravanan, S.; Prakash, N. 2007. Recent changes in populations of resident Gyps vultures in India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society 104(2): 127-133.

Prakash, V.; Pain, D. J.; Cunningham, A. A.; Donald, P. F.; Prakash, N.; Verma, A.; Gargi, R.; Sivakumar, S.; Rahmani, A. R. 2003. Catastrophic collapse of Indian white-backed Gyps bengalensis and long-billed Gyps indicus vulture populations. Biological Conservation 109: 381-390.

Shultz, S.; Baral, H.S.; Charman, S.; Cunningham, A. A.; Das, D.; Ghalasi, G. R.; Goudar, M.S.; Green, R.E.; Jones, A.; Nighot, P.; Pain, D.J.; Prakash, V. 2004. Diclofenac poisoning is widespread in declining vulture populations across the Indian subcontinent. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B 271: S458-S460.

Swan, G.E.; Cuthbert, R.; Quevedo, M.; Green, R.E.; Pain, D.J.; Bartels, P.; Cunningham, A. A.; Duncan, N.; Meharg, A. A.; Oaks, J. L.; Parry-Jones, J.; Taggart, M. A.; Verdoorn, G.; Wolter, K. 2006. Toxicity of diclofenac to Gyps vultures. Biology Letters: 279-282.

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Swan, G.; Naidoo, V.; Cuthbert, R.; Green, R.E.; Pain, D.J.; Swarup, D.; Prakash, V.; Taggart, M.; Bekker, L.; Das, D.; Diekmann, J.; Diekmann, M.; Killian, E.; Meharg, A.; Patra, R.C.; Saini, M.; Wolter, K. 2006. Removing the threat of diclofenac to critically endangered Asian vultures. PLoS Biology: e66.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Gyps bengalensis. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 May 2012.
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