Sterna albifrons

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	CHARADRIIFORMES	LARIDAE

Scientific Name:

Sterna albifrons

Species Authority:

Pallas, 1764

Common Name/s:

English	–	Little Tern
French	–	Sterne naine

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Published:

2009

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S.

Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is very large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

History:

2008	–	Least Concern
2004	–	Least Concern

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Breeding populations of the Little Tern can be found through much of Europe, scattering along the coast and inland in parts of Africa, in much of western, central and the extreme east and south of Asia, and in northern parts of Australasia. Migratory individuals expand the range to include most of the coast of Africa, the Arabian Peninsula, the western coast of India and most of the waters of south-east Asia and Australasia, including New Zealand. One seasonally breeding colony is also present on Hawaii¹.
Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Albania; Algeria; Armenia; Australia; Austria; Azerbaijan; Bahrain; Bangladesh; Belarus; Belgium; Benin; Bosnia and Herzegovina; British Indian Ocean Territory; Brunei Darussalam; Bulgaria; Burundi; Cambodia; Cameroon; Chad; China; Congo; Congo, The Democratic Republic of the; Côte d'Ivoire; Croatia; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Denmark; Djibouti; Egypt; Equatorial Guinea; Eritrea; Estonia; Finland; France; Gabon; Gambia; Georgia; Germany; Ghana; Gibraltar; Greece; Guam; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Hong Kong; Hungary; India; Indonesia; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Ireland; Israel; Italy; Japan; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kenya; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Lao People's Democratic Republic; Latvia; Liberia; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Lithuania; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malaysia; Mali; Marshall Islands; Mauritania; Mauritius; Moldova; Mongolia; Montenegro; Morocco; Mozambique; Myanmar; Nepal; Netherlands; New Zealand; Niger; Nigeria; Northern Mariana Islands; Norway; Oman; Pakistan; Palau; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Papua New Guinea; Philippines; Poland; Portugal; Qatar; Romania; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Singapore; Slovakia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; Somalia; South Africa; Spain; Sri Lanka; Sweden; Switzerland; Syrian Arab Republic; Taiwan, Province of China; Tajikistan; Tanzania, United Republic of; Thailand; Timor-Leste; Togo; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; United Kingdom; Uzbekistan; Viet Nam; Western Sahara Vagrant: Angola; Burkina Faso; Cape Verde; Colombia; Faroe Islands; Fiji; Kiribati; Lebanon; Luxembourg; Maldives; Malta; Namibia; New Caledonia; Samoa; Seychelles; Sierra Leone; United States; Yemen Present - origin uncertain: Sudan
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour The Little Tern is a strongly migratory¹ coastal seabird which usually fishes in very shallow water only a few centimetres deep, often over the advancing tideline or in brackish lagoons and saltmarsh creeks. It has the most inshore distribution of all terns. It breeds between May and July² in solitary pairs³ or small monospecific groups¹ usually of 1-15 pairs^1,4 (rarely over 40 pairs)¹ occasionally amidst colonies of other terns³. Breeding may be timed to coincide with peak fish abundance¹⁵. Northern breeders depart the breeding grounds from late-July onwards^1,2, travelling first to moulting sites where they form large roosts before continuing southwards⁹. The species is gregarious throughout the year⁴ and usually feeds singly, in small groups or larger scattered flocks⁴ and congregating in many thousands on passage in small wetlands where fish fry are abundant¹. Habitat Breeding The species breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle¹, shell fragments, pebbles³, rocks or coral fragments¹ on seashores³ or in estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, offshore coral reefs¹, rivers, lakes^1,3 and reservoirs⁶. It may also nest on dry mudflats in grassy areas^1,6 but shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for extensive foraging flights⁴. Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season the species frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and saltpans and may foraging at sea¹ up to 15 km offshore⁵. Diet Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. Ammodytes spp., roach Rutilus rutilus, rudd Scardinius erythrophthalmus, carp Cyprinus carpio and perch Perca fluviatilis) and crustaceans 3-6 cm long as well as insects, annelid worms and molluscs¹. In Scotland, Little Terns feed mainly on small fish and invertebrates, including herring, sandeel, and shrimps (Crangon vulgaris)¹⁷. In Portugal, birds were found to feed mainly on sand-smelts (Atherina spp.) and gobies (Pomatoschistus spp.), which were the most abundant fish species in the study areas¹⁶. On Rigby Island, Australia, chicks were fed entirely on juvenile fish of the families Clupeidae, Engraulidae, Pomatomidae and Carangidae, including pilchard, southern anchovy and blue sprat¹⁸. Breeding site The nest is a bare scrape² positioned on the ground in less than 15 % vegetation cover¹ on beaches of sand, pebbles, shingle, shell fragments, coral fragments or rock^1,3 above the high tide-line and often only a few metres away from shallow clear water⁴. Alternatively in more marshy habitats (e.g. coastal saltmarshes) the species may build a nest of shells or vegetation¹. The species nests in small loose colonies, with neighbouring nests usually placed more than 2 m apart¹. Foraging range In Spain, 95% of foraging terns were observed less than 4 km away from the nearest colony¹⁹. However, the foraging range of individuals varies according to whether they are currently breeding. In Norfolk, UK, birds with an active nest occupied a range of <6.3 km² with a range span of up to 4.6 km¹⁵, whereas failed birds ranged widely, travelling up to 27 km in a single foraging bout¹⁵. In Portugal, ranges were found to be significantly greater during incubation (April-May) than during chick rearing (June-July)²⁰. Little Terns prefer channels and lagoons for foraging, rather than deeper marine habitats^19,20. They also prefer areas with abundant resources, entrance channels and main lagoon channels with strong currents, and areas with alternative feeding resources nearby²⁰. Areas subjected to strong human pressure²⁰ and salt marshes¹⁹ are avoided. The species tends to forage preferentially at low tide²⁰.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour The Little Tern is a strongly migratory¹ coastal seabird which usually fishes in very shallow water only a few centimetres deep, often over the advancing tideline or in brackish lagoons and saltmarsh creeks. It has the most inshore distribution of all terns. It breeds between May and July² in solitary pairs³ or small monospecific groups¹ usually of 1-15 pairs^1,4 (rarely over 40 pairs)¹ occasionally amidst colonies of other terns³. Breeding may be timed to coincide with peak fish abundance¹⁵. Northern breeders depart the breeding grounds from late-July onwards^1,2, travelling first to moulting sites where they form large roosts before continuing southwards⁹. The species is gregarious throughout the year⁴ and usually feeds singly, in small groups or larger scattered flocks⁴ and congregating in many thousands on passage in small wetlands where fish fry are abundant¹. Habitat Breeding The species breeds on barren or sparsely vegetated beaches, islands and spits of sand, shingle¹, shell fragments, pebbles³, rocks or coral fragments¹ on seashores³ or in estuaries, saltmarshes, saltpans, offshore coral reefs¹, rivers, lakes^1,3 and reservoirs⁶. It may also nest on dry mudflats in grassy areas^1,6 but shows a preference for islets surrounded by saline or fresh water where small fish can be caught without the need for extensive foraging flights⁴. Non-breeding Outside of the breeding season the species frequents tidal creeks, coastal lagoons and saltpans and may foraging at sea¹ up to 15 km offshore⁵. Diet Its diet consists predominantly of small fish (e.g. Ammodytes spp., roach Rutilus rutilus, rudd Scardinius erythrophthalmus, carp Cyprinus carpio and perch Perca fluviatilis) and crustaceans 3-6 cm long as well as insects, annelid worms and molluscs¹. In Scotland, Little Terns feed mainly on small fish and invertebrates, including herring, sandeel, and shrimps (Crangon vulgaris)¹⁷. In Portugal, birds were found to feed mainly on sand-smelts (Atherina spp.) and gobies (Pomatoschistus spp.), which were the most abundant fish species in the study areas¹⁶. On Rigby Island, Australia, chicks were fed entirely on juvenile fish of the families Clupeidae, Engraulidae, Pomatomidae and Carangidae, including pilchard, southern anchovy and blue sprat¹⁸. Breeding site The nest is a bare scrape² positioned on the ground in less than 15 % vegetation cover¹ on beaches of sand, pebbles, shingle, shell fragments, coral fragments or rock^1,3 above the high tide-line and often only a few metres away from shallow clear water⁴. Alternatively in more marshy habitats (e.g. coastal saltmarshes) the species may build a nest of shells or vegetation¹. The species nests in small loose colonies, with neighbouring nests usually placed more than 2 m apart¹. Foraging range In Spain, 95% of foraging terns were observed less than 4 km away from the nearest colony¹⁹. However, the foraging range of individuals varies according to whether they are currently breeding. In Norfolk, UK, birds with an active nest occupied a range of <6.3 km² with a range span of up to 4.6 km¹⁵, whereas failed birds ranged widely, travelling up to 27 km in a single foraging bout¹⁵. In Portugal, ranges were found to be significantly greater during incubation (April-May) than during chick rearing (June-July)²⁰. Little Terns prefer channels and lagoons for foraging, rather than deeper marine habitats^19,20. They also prefer areas with abundant resources, entrance channels and main lagoon channels with strong currents, and areas with alternative feeding resources nearby²⁰. Areas subjected to strong human pressure²⁰ and salt marshes¹⁹ are avoided. The species tends to forage preferentially at low tide²⁰.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The species is threatened by habitat destruction⁷ such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats^{1, 7} (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities)⁷. It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures^{1, 7}. Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT)^{7, 10, 12} and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes⁷ may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success^{7, 10, 12}. The species also suffers from local egg collecting⁷ and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁸.

Major Threat(s):

The species is threatened by habitat destruction⁷ such as the development and industrial reclamation of coastal breeding habitats^{1, 7} (e.g. for the development of new harbour facilities)⁷. It is also highly vulnerable to human disturbance (including birdwatchers) at coastal and inland nesting sites which can lead to nest failures^{1, 7}. Pesticide pollution (e.g. organochlorine pollutants, mercury and DDT)^{7, 10, 12} and artificially induced water-level fluctuations in saltmarshes⁷ may also pose a threat to the species's reproductive success^{7, 10, 12}. The species also suffers from local egg collecting⁷ and is susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁸.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches^2,11. There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season¹¹. Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation)¹³. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites¹⁴. The scheme particularly specifies that small bare islets of 0.1-0.8 ha with very reduced vegetation cover (less than 30 %) and sward heights less than 20 cm should be maintained or created as additional nesting sites for this species¹⁴. Conservation Actions Proposed

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
Protective measures such as fencing-off sensitive nesting areas, erecting warning signs and wardening are effective measures of increasing the breeding success of this species on sandy beaches^2,11. There is also evidence that earlier breeders benefit more (i.e. have higher reproductive success) from protective measures, suggesting that conservation efforts can be maximised if concentrated earlier in the season¹¹. Breeding pairs are also known to be attracted to coastal locations where artificial nesting sites have been constructed (e.g. beaches of bare shingle and islands or rafts covered with sparse vegetation)¹³. A conservation scheme for the protection of gull and tern breeding colonies in coastal lagoons and deltas (e.g. Po Delta, Italy) involves protection from human disturbance, prevention of erosion of islet complexes, habitat maintenance and the creation of new islets for nest sites¹⁴. The scheme particularly specifies that small bare islets of 0.1-0.8 ha with very reduced vegetation cover (less than 30 %) and sward heights less than 20 cm should be maintained or created as additional nesting sites for this species¹⁴.

Conservation Actions Proposed

Bibliography [top]

	Barcena, F.; Teixeira, A. M., Bermejo, A. 1984. Breeding seabird populations in the Atlantic sector of the Iberian Peninsula. In: Croxall, J. P.; Evans, P. G. H., Schreiber, R. W. (ed.), Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds, pp. 335-345. International Council for Bird Preservation. BirdLife International. 2000. The Development of Boundary Selection Criteria for the Extension of Breeding Seabird Special Protection Areas into the Marine Environment. OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. Vlissingen (Flushing). Burgess, N. D.; Hirons, J. M. 1992. Creation and management of articficial nesting sites for wetland birds. Journal of Environmental Management 34(4): 285-295. Catry, T., Ramos, J.A., Martins, J., Peste, F., Trigo, S., Paiva, V.H., Almeida, A., Luis, A., Palma, J. and Andrade, P.J. 2006. Intercolony and annual differences in the diet and feeding ecology of little tern adults and chicks in Portugal. Condor 108(2): 366-376. Choi, J. W.; Matsuda, M.; Kawano, M.; Min, B. Y.; Wakimoto, T. 2001. Accumulation Profiles of Persistent Organochlorines in Waterbirds from an Estuary in Korea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 41: 353-363. del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. de Silva, R. I. 1991. Status and conservation of the breeding seabirds of Sri Lanka. In: Croxall. J. P. (ed.), Seabird Status and Conservation: A Supplement, pp. 205-211. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK. Fasola, M.; Canova, L. 1996. Conservation of gull and tern colony sites in north-eastern Italy, an internationally important bird area. Colonial Waterbirds 19: 59-67. Flint, V. E.; Boehme, R. L.; Kostin, Y. V.; Kuznetsov, A. A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Medeiros, R.; Ramos, J. A.; Paiva, V. H.; Almeida, A.; Pedro, P.; Antunes, S. 2007. Signage reduces the impact of human disturbance on little tern nesting success in Portugal. Biological Conservation 135: 99-106. Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Perrow, M. R., Skeate, E. R., Lines, P., Brown, D., Tomlinson, M. L. 2006. Radio telemetry as a tool for impact assessment of wind farms: the case of Little Terns Sterna albifrons at Scroby Sands, Norfolk, UK. Richards, A. 1990. Seabirds of the northern hemisphere. Dragon's World Ltd, Limpsfield, U.K. Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford. Tavecchia, G.; Baccetti, N.; Serra, L. 2006. Modelling survival and movement probability of Little Tern Sterna albifrons at a post-breeding moulting site: the effect of the colony of origin. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 560-561. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Taylor IR; Roe EL. 2004. Feeding ecology of little terns Sterna albifrons sinensis in south-eastern Australia and the effects of pilchard mass mortality on breeding success and population size . Marine and Freshwater Research 55(8): 799-808. Thyen, S.; Becker, P. H.; Behmann, H. 2000. Organochlorine and mercury contamination of little terns (Sterna albifrons) breeding at the western Baltic Sea, 1978-96. Environmental Pollution 108: 225-238. Urban, E. K.; Fry, C. H.; Keith, S. 1986. The birds of Africa vol. II. Academic Press, London.

Barcena, F.; Teixeira, A. M., Bermejo, A. 1984. Breeding seabird populations in the Atlantic sector of the Iberian Peninsula. In: Croxall, J. P.; Evans, P. G. H., Schreiber, R. W. (ed.), Status and Conservation of the World's Seabirds, pp. 335-345. International Council for Bird Preservation.

BirdLife International. 2000. The Development of Boundary Selection Criteria for the Extension of Breeding Seabird Special Protection Areas into the Marine Environment. OSPAR Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic. Vlissingen (Flushing).

Burgess, N. D.; Hirons, J. M. 1992. Creation and management of articficial nesting sites for wetland birds. Journal of Environmental Management 34(4): 285-295.

Catry, T., Ramos, J.A., Martins, J., Peste, F., Trigo, S., Paiva, V.H., Almeida, A., Luis, A., Palma, J. and Andrade, P.J. 2006. Intercolony and annual differences in the diet and feeding ecology of little tern adults and chicks in Portugal. Condor 108(2): 366-376.

Choi, J. W.; Matsuda, M.; Kawano, M.; Min, B. Y.; Wakimoto, T. 2001. Accumulation Profiles of Persistent Organochlorines in Waterbirds from an Estuary in Korea. Archives of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology 41: 353-363.

del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

de Silva, R. I. 1991. Status and conservation of the breeding seabirds of Sri Lanka. In: Croxall. J. P. (ed.), Seabird Status and Conservation: A Supplement, pp. 205-211. International Council for Bird Preservation, Cambridge, UK.

Fasola, M.; Canova, L. 1996. Conservation of gull and tern colony sites in north-eastern Italy, an internationally important bird area. Colonial Waterbirds 19: 59-67.

Flint, V. E.; Boehme, R. L.; Kostin, Y. V.; Kuznetsov, A. A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Medeiros, R.; Ramos, J. A.; Paiva, V. H.; Almeida, A.; Pedro, P.; Antunes, S. 2007. Signage reduces the impact of human disturbance on little tern nesting success in Portugal. Biological Conservation 135: 99-106.

Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Perrow, M. R., Skeate, E. R., Lines, P., Brown, D., Tomlinson, M. L. 2006. Radio telemetry as a tool for impact assessment of wind farms: the case of Little Terns Sterna albifrons at Scroby Sands, Norfolk, UK.

Richards, A. 1990. Seabirds of the northern hemisphere. Dragon's World Ltd, Limpsfield, U.K.

Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Tavecchia, G.; Baccetti, N.; Serra, L. 2006. Modelling survival and movement probability of Little Tern Sterna albifrons at a post-breeding moulting site: the effect of the colony of origin. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 560-561. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Taylor IR; Roe EL. 2004. Feeding ecology of little terns Sterna albifrons sinensis in south-eastern Australia and the effects of pilchard mass mortality on breeding success and population size . Marine and Freshwater Research 55(8): 799-808.

Thyen, S.; Becker, P. H.; Behmann, H. 2000. Organochlorine and mercury contamination of little terns (Sterna albifrons) breeding at the western Baltic Sea, 1978-96. Environmental Pollution 108: 225-238.

Urban, E. K.; Fry, C. H.; Keith, S. 1986. The birds of Africa vol. II. Academic Press, London.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2009. Sterna albifrons. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 May 2012.
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