Rissa tridactyla

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	CHARADRIIFORMES	LARIDAE

Scientific Name:

Rissa tridactyla

Species Authority:

(Linnaeus, 1758)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Black-legged Kittiwake, Kittiwake
French	–	Mouette tridactyle

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Least Concern ver 3.1

Year Published:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Calvert, R., Butchart, S., Bird, J.

Justification:
This species has an extremely large range, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the range size criterion (Extent of Occurrence <20,000 km2 combined with a declining or fluctuating range size, habitat extent/quality, or population size and a small number of locations or severe fragmentation). Despite the fact that the population trend appears to be decreasing, the decline is not believed to be sufficiently rapid to approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population trend criterion (>30% decline over ten years or three generations). The population size is extremely large, and hence does not approach the thresholds for Vulnerable under the population size criterion (<10,000 mature individuals with a continuing decline estimated to be >10% in ten years or three generations, or with a specified population structure). For these reasons the species is evaluated as Least Concern.

History:

2009	–	Least Concern
2008	–	Least Concern
2004	–	Least Concern

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	The Black-legged Kittiwake nests along coastlines in much of the north Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and also breeds on inlands off the northern coast of Russia and on the northern coast of Norway. It winters at sea, ranging across much of the north Atlantic and Pacific oceans¹. Overall population trends are unknown, though failed breeding seasons in 2008 and in some cases significant population declines have been observed in the United Kingdom by the RSPB.
Countries:	Native: Algeria; Austria; Bahamas; Belgium; Canada; Cape Verde; China; Denmark; Faroe Islands; France; Germany; Gibraltar; Greece; Greenland; Iceland; Ireland; Italy; Japan; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Korea, Republic of; Lithuania; Mauritania; Mexico; Morocco; Netherlands; Norway; Poland; Portugal; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Saint Pierre and Miquelon; Slovakia; Slovenia; Spain; Svalbard and Jan Mayen; Sweden; Switzerland; Tunisia; Turkey; United Kingdom; United States; Western Sahara Vagrant: Antigua and Barbuda; Barbados; Belarus; Belize; Bulgaria; Cayman Islands; Croatia; Cuba; Cyprus; Czech Republic; Dominica; Dominican Republic; Egypt; Estonia; Gambia; Guadeloupe; Haiti; Hungary; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Israel; Jamaica; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lebanon; Luxembourg; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Malta; Martinique; Mongolia; Montenegro; Montserrat; Oman; Peru; Puerto Rico; Romania; Russian Federation; Saint Kitts and Nevis; Saint Lucia; Saint Vincent and the Grenadines; Senegal; Serbia; South Africa; Syrian Arab Republic; Trinidad and Tobago; Turks and Caicos Islands; Ukraine; United Arab Emirates; Uzbekistan; Virgin Islands, British; Virgin Islands, U.S. Present - origin uncertain: Afghanistan; Côte d'Ivoire; Guinea; Guinea-Bissau; Liberia; Monaco; Sierra Leone
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).

Population:

Total regarded as a minimum by Wetlands International (2006).

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean¹. It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed-species colonies¹ that often exceed 100,000 pairs^{1, 4}. Breeding may occur later after periods of cold weather and many individuals do not remain on the breeding grounds during such conditions¹. The species begins to disperse from the breeding colonies between July and August, often moulting in large flocks of several thousand individuals on beaches between the breeding grounds and the open sea². Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season⁴. Outside of the breeding season the species often occurs singly or in pairs⁴ but may also occur in small flocks or as dispersed aggregations^{3, 4}. Habitat Breeding It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater¹. Non-breeding The species moults on sandy beaches² and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling¹ and at rich fish banks². During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land¹. Diet Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g. squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans¹ (e.g. crayfish)³, earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g. aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain)¹. At sea during the winter it will also take planktonic invertebrates and often exploits sewage outfalls and fishing vessels¹. Breeding site The nest is a compacted mass of mud⁴, grass and feathers³ usually built on a narrow ledge on high, steep coastal cliffs¹. Occasionally the species may also nest on glaciers or snow banks (where these have covered traditional cliff nesting sites), on buildings and piers, or on flat, rocky or sandy sites up to 20 km inland¹. It breeds in very large colonies with neighbouring nests spaced evenly 30-60 cm apart (where site availability allows)⁴, and generally feeds within 50 km of the breeding colony¹.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour This species is migratory and disperses after breeding from coastal areas to the open ocean¹. It returns to its breeding grounds from January where it breeds from mid-May to mid-June in huge single- or mixed-species colonies¹ that often exceed 100,000 pairs^{1, 4}. Breeding may occur later after periods of cold weather and many individuals do not remain on the breeding grounds during such conditions¹. The species begins to disperse from the breeding colonies between July and August, often moulting in large flocks of several thousand individuals on beaches between the breeding grounds and the open sea². Non-breeders may also remain at sea during the breeding season⁴. Outside of the breeding season the species often occurs singly or in pairs⁴ but may also occur in small flocks or as dispersed aggregations^{3, 4}. Habitat Breeding It nests on high, steep coastal cliffs with narrow ledges in areas with easy access to freshwater¹. Non-breeding The species moults on sandy beaches² and on passage it may concentrate at sea on continental shelves, areas of upwelling¹ and at rich fish banks². During the winter the species is highly pelagic, usually remaining on the wing out of sight of land¹. Diet Its diet consists predominantly of marine invertebrates (e.g. squid and shrimps) and fish, although during the breeding season it may also take intertidal molluscs, crustaceans¹ (e.g. crayfish)³, earthworms, small mammals and plant matter (e.g. aquatic plants, potato tubers and grain)¹. At sea during the winter it will also take planktonic invertebrates and often exploits sewage outfalls and fishing vessels¹. Breeding site The nest is a compacted mass of mud⁴, grass and feathers³ usually built on a narrow ledge on high, steep coastal cliffs¹. Occasionally the species may also nest on glaciers or snow banks (where these have covered traditional cliff nesting sites), on buildings and piers, or on flat, rocky or sandy sites up to 20 km inland¹. It breeds in very large colonies with neighbouring nests spaced evenly 30-60 cm apart (where site availability allows)⁴, and generally feeds within 50 km of the breeding colony¹.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	The species is threatened by the depletion of food resources (e.g. through over-fishing)^{6, 7}, marine oil spills^{1, 6} and chronic oil pollution⁶. It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁵. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10^o latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International, unpublished data). Utilisation The species is hunted in Greenland¹.

Major Threat(s):

The species is threatened by the depletion of food resources (e.g. through over-fishing)^{6, 7}, marine oil spills^{1, 6} and chronic oil pollution⁶. It is also susceptible to avian influenza so may be threatened by future outbreaks of the virus⁵. The species is potentially threatened by climate change because it has a geographically bounded distribution: its global distribution is restricted to within c.10^o latitude from the polar edge of continent and within which 20-50% of current vegetation type is projected to disappear under doubling of CO2 levels (BirdLife International, unpublished data). Utilisation The species is hunted in Greenland¹.

Bibliography [top]

	del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain. Flint, V. E.; Boehme, R. L.; Kostin, Y. V.; Kuznetsov, A. A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Frederiksen, M.; Wanless, S.; Harris, M. P.; Rothery, P.; Wilson, L. J. 2004. The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 1129-1139. Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Nikolaeva, N. G.; Spiridonov, V. A.; Krasnov, Y. V. 2006. Existing and proposed marine protected areas and their relevance for seabird conservation: a case study in the Barents Sea region. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 743-749. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK. Olsen, K. M.; Larsson, H. 2004. Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America. Christopher Helm, London. Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A.; Sargatal, J. 1996. Handbook of the Birds of the World, vol. 3: Hoatzin to Auks. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, Spain.

Flint, V. E.; Boehme, R. L.; Kostin, Y. V.; Kuznetsov, A. A. 1984. A field guide to birds of the USSR. Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey.

Frederiksen, M.; Wanless, S.; Harris, M. P.; Rothery, P.; Wilson, L. J. 2004. The role of industrial fisheries and oceanographic change in the decline of North Sea black-legged kittiwakes. Journal of Applied Ecology 41: 1129-1139.

Melville, D. S.; Shortridge, K. F. 2006. Migratory waterbirds and avian influenza in the East Asian-Australasian Flyway with particular reference to the 2003-2004 H5N1 outbreak. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 432-438. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Nikolaeva, N. G.; Spiridonov, V. A.; Krasnov, Y. V. 2006. Existing and proposed marine protected areas and their relevance for seabird conservation: a case study in the Barents Sea region. In: Boere, G.; Galbraith, C., Stroud, D. (ed.), Waterbirds around the world, pp. 743-749. The Stationary Office, Edinburgh, UK.

Olsen, K. M.; Larsson, H. 2004. Gulls of Europe, Asia and North America. Christopher Helm, London.

Snow, D. W.; Perrins, C. M. 1998. The Birds of the Western Palearctic vol. 1: Non-Passerines. Oxford University Press, Oxford.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Rissa tridactyla. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 May 2012.
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