Psittacula eques

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

Bibliography

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	PSITTACIFORMES	PSITTACIDAE

Scientific Name:

Psittacula eques

Species Authority:

(Newton & Newton, 1876)

Common Name/s:

English	–	Mascarene Parrakeet, Mauritius Parakeet
French	–	Perruche de l'Ile Maurice

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Endangered B1ab(iii);D ver 3.1

Year Published:

2008

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Taylor, J., Butchart, S.

Contributor/s:

Jones, C., Tatayah, V.

Justification:
This species has seen a steady and prolonged increase in the wild population as a result of intensive recovery management. However, its overall numbers are still small, and the population is restricted to a small range within which habitat continues to decline. It therefore qualifies as Endangered.

History:

2007	–	Endangered
2006	–	Critically Endangered
2004	–	Critically Endangered
2000	–	Critically Endangered
1996	–	Critically Endangered
1994	–	Critically Endangered

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Psittacula eques survives in south-west Mauritius, having become extinct historically on Réunion (to France). From the 1970s to the mid-1980s the 10 or so known birds appeared to suffer almost total breeding failure. However, breeding subsequently began to be successful, and in 1993-1994 there were 16-22 birds (including five pairs, three of which bred but without success) with an additional captive pair which produced one young in 1993. During the 1996-1997 breeding season there were 13 known wild pairs with a total of 50-61 birds present at the end of the breeding season restricted to an area of c.50 km² contained within the 65.74 km² Black River Gorges National Park in the south-west of the island⁵. In 1998 the wild population stood at 59-73 birds, with 14 captive-bred or captive-reared birds having been released at Macchabé-Brise Fer since 1997⁸. The rapid increase in population since 1995 is due primarily to intensive management of the wild population, the discovery of previously unknown breeding birds and an increase in the number of breeding groups that attempt to breed each year⁷. There are now 15 known wild breeding groups⁹. In the 1999/2000 season, 19 pairs were known in the wild, 16 pairs laid eggs and 12 pairs were successful in raising 19 young, so that the population in January 2000 stood at 106-126 wild individuals¹⁴. There was also a captive population of 33 birds held at this time at the Gerald Durrell Endemic Wildlife Sanctuary, Black River¹⁴. Since that time the population continued to increase to 55 pairs (280-300 birds in the wild) in February 2005^15,18. The 2004-2005, 2005-2006 and 2006-2007 breeding seasons have shown continued improvement^16,18,19. In March 2006 the population was estimated at 309-335 in the wild¹⁶. However, numbers fell to an estimated 290 birds by August 2006, probably due to Psittacene Beak and Feather Disease (PBFD)¹⁶. In 2007, the population was estimated at 343 birds in the wild¹⁹. This species occupies only c.40 km² of remnant native upland forest and uses only around 50% of this regularly¹⁰.
Countries:	Native: Mauritius
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	In 2007, the population was estimated at 343 birds in the wild (Raffray 2007), but the number of mature individuals is assumed to be in the range 50-249.
Population Trend:	Increasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	This species now survives in forest and upland scrub¹, with lowland, intermediate and scrub forests being very important feeding areas³. It appears to be a strictly arboreal forager, feeding mainly on native plants and taking a wide range of parts including buds, young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, twigs and even bark and sap³. They return to favoured food trees, some of which have been used for generations¹⁷. Birds forage singly or in small groups in different areas at different seasons and are known to travel several kilometers to and from feeding areas in search of food, although the dwarf forest and scrublands of the south-west plateau are an important foraging area throughout the year³. Nesting takes place in natural cavities in native trees². The breeding unit is a pair or a group of one female with up to three males, one of which is dominant and mates with and feeds the female¹⁷. The presence of extra males is probably the result of a skewed sex ratio; pairs are usually hostile to extra males, who seem to have no positive effect on fledging success, which is probably related to the experience of the dominant male¹⁷. Clutch size is 1-4 (but normally 2-3) eggs, which are laid from September-December^7,17, and incubation, by the female, lasts 21-25 days¹⁷. Hatching success is high¹⁴. One or two chicks are usually fledged¹⁷ from the end of October to the beginning of February or later, and fledgling parakeets are reputed to stay with their parents, being fed by them for at least 2-3 months after leaving the nest³. One possible reason for the marked increase in the number of pairs attempting to breed each year is the species's increasing utilisation of exotic plants for food, particularly the very common strawberry guava Psidium cattleianum and star fruit Averrhoa carambola^7,14,17.
Systems:	Terrestrial

Habitat and Ecology:

This species now survives in forest and upland scrub¹, with lowland, intermediate and scrub forests being very important feeding areas³. It appears to be a strictly arboreal forager, feeding mainly on native plants and taking a wide range of parts including buds, young shoots, leaves, flowers, fruits, seeds, twigs and even bark and sap³. They return to favoured food trees, some of which have been used for generations¹⁷. Birds forage singly or in small groups in different areas at different seasons and are known to travel several kilometers to and from feeding areas in search of food, although the dwarf forest and scrublands of the south-west plateau are an important foraging area throughout the year³. Nesting takes place in natural cavities in native trees². The breeding unit is a pair or a group of one female with up to three males, one of which is dominant and mates with and feeds the female¹⁷. The presence of extra males is probably the result of a skewed sex ratio; pairs are usually hostile to extra males, who seem to have no positive effect on fledging success, which is probably related to the experience of the dominant male¹⁷. Clutch size is 1-4 (but normally 2-3) eggs, which are laid from September-December^7,17, and incubation, by the female, lasts 21-25 days¹⁷. Hatching success is high¹⁴. One or two chicks are usually fledged¹⁷ from the end of October to the beginning of February or later, and fledgling parakeets are reputed to stay with their parents, being fed by them for at least 2-3 months after leaving the nest³. One possible reason for the marked increase in the number of pairs attempting to breed each year is the species's increasing utilisation of exotic plants for food, particularly the very common strawberry guava Psidium cattleianum and star fruit Averrhoa carambola^7,14,17.

Systems:

Terrestrial

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	This species's earlier decline and contracting distribution corresponds to the severe destruction and degradation of its native habitat^2,3. The population crashed from a likely total of several thousand following forest destruction and the replacement of its favoured feeding habitat, upland dwarf forest, with plantations¹⁷. In 1996, only 5% of the island was covered with native vegetation¹⁷. The areas of upland native forest that remain continue to be highly degraded by cyclones, the influences of past forestry practices, the spread of introduced plants such as guava Psidium cattleianum, privet Ligustrum robustum and jamrosa Syzygium jambos and the effect of introduced feral mammals such as pigs Sus scrofa and rusa deer Cerus timorensis^2,7. The production of native fruit, on which the parakeet feeds, and regeneration of potential nest trees is thus poor². Recent research suggests that food shortage due to deterioration of the native forest is the major cause of nest failure; although exotics can provide an abundant food source it is not available year-round or even throughout the breeding season⁷. Crab-eating macaques Macaca fascicularis and black rats Rattus rattus are amongst a number of introduced arboreal species which pose a threat to parakeets by raiding nests and competing for native fruits². Bees Apis melifera, White-tailed Tropicbirds Phaeton lepturus, introduced Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis and Ring-necked Parakeets Psittacula krameri are all nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs^7,14. The decline in the number of old native trees, which are lost to storm damage and senescence, has intensified competition for nesting cavities, with 14-19% of P. eques cavities lost to competitors each year¹⁷. Surplus male P. eques (the male: female ratio is c.3:1) also disrupt some breeding pairs and possibly kill young birds¹⁴. Infestations of nest fly larvae can be severe in some years and, without intervention, would kill many young¹⁴. Recently, PBFD has been recorded but its impacts are not yet fully understood^16,19. Pesticides do not seem to have significantly affected the species².

Major Threat(s):

This species's earlier decline and contracting distribution corresponds to the severe destruction and degradation of its native habitat^2,3. The population crashed from a likely total of several thousand following forest destruction and the replacement of its favoured feeding habitat, upland dwarf forest, with plantations¹⁷. In 1996, only 5% of the island was covered with native vegetation¹⁷. The areas of upland native forest that remain continue to be highly degraded by cyclones, the influences of past forestry practices, the spread of introduced plants such as guava Psidium cattleianum, privet Ligustrum robustum and jamrosa Syzygium jambos and the effect of introduced feral mammals such as pigs Sus scrofa and rusa deer Cerus timorensis^2,7. The production of native fruit, on which the parakeet feeds, and regeneration of potential nest trees is thus poor². Recent research suggests that food shortage due to deterioration of the native forest is the major cause of nest failure; although exotics can provide an abundant food source it is not available year-round or even throughout the breeding season⁷. Crab-eating macaques Macaca fascicularis and black rats Rattus rattus are amongst a number of introduced arboreal species which pose a threat to parakeets by raiding nests and competing for native fruits². Bees Apis melifera, White-tailed Tropicbirds Phaeton lepturus, introduced Common Mynas Acridotheres tristis and Ring-necked Parakeets Psittacula krameri are all nest site competitors and can displace active breeding pairs^7,14. The decline in the number of old native trees, which are lost to storm damage and senescence, has intensified competition for nesting cavities, with 14-19% of P. eques cavities lost to competitors each year¹⁷. Surplus male P. eques (the male: female ratio is c.3:1) also disrupt some breeding pairs and possibly kill young birds¹⁴. Infestations of nest fly larvae can be severe in some years and, without intervention, would kill many young¹⁴. Recently, PBFD has been recorded but its impacts are not yet fully understood^16,19. Pesticides do not seem to have significantly affected the species².

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway The species has been the subject of a conservation programme since 1973¹⁷. The dramatic increase in the species's population in recent years is undoubtedly due to an intensive programme to manage the wild population combined with a highly succesful captive breeding programme since the 1993/4 breeding season¹⁷ - a collaborative effort of the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the World Parrot Trust, the Mauritian Government and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Society² - which has released 22 captive-reared individuals since 1997¹⁴, of which at least 13 still survived in May 1998¹⁷. It was hoped that 20-30 captive-reared birds would be released each year from 1999 to 2003¹⁷. In the 2004/5 breeding season 11 chicks were produced by captive birds, and a new release site was set up where a total of 36 birds were released¹⁸. Intensive management includes nest site enhancement, provision of nest boxes (not yet used), supplementary feeding of some individuals, predator control around nest sites, control of nest competitors (White-tailed Tropicbird Phaeton lepturus), control of nest parasites, close guarding and monitoring of all nests, rescue of eggs/young from failing nests, clutch manipulations (double clutching, exchanging infertile eggs with fertile ones), and brood manipulations (downbrooding, ie removing extra chicks from large broods and giving to foster parents)^14,17. All nest cavities are enhanced, modified and repaired as necessary, and measures taken to eliminate rats and parasites and prevent flooding¹⁷. Habitat management has been directed at increasing the productivity of native forest and has included the foundation in 1993 of the Black River National Park in 6,574 ha of native forest^2,4, including most of the species's remaining habitat¹⁷. There are 14 Conservation Management Areas (CMAs), ranging from 0.2 to 24 ha, in which native forest is manually cleared of weeds¹⁷. These CMAs are heavily utilised by the species as their trees produce bumper crops¹⁴. Captive-reared birds have been released into the largest CMA, where problematic mammals are controlled¹⁷. Research is ongoing into present and historic genetic variation of the species so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and current populations managed to preserve maximum genetic diversity⁵. Research into the impact of PBFD is likely to be ongoing for several years¹⁹. Non-invasive exotic fruit trees are being planted to provide an extra food source¹⁰. Conservation Actions Proposed Improve nest site management^6,9. Feed wild birds with supplementary food^6,9. Increase production of birds for release by controlling disease and improving diet of captive birds^6,9. Establish new, and improve existing (in part by the use of predator proof fencing¹⁴) CMAs^9,14, and establish managed source populations breeding in nest boxes within these areas¹⁴. Redress the sex ratio through judicious harvesting of surplus male nestlings and releasing mainly young females¹⁴. Consider reintroduction to Réunion and introduction to the Seychelles, where Psittacula wardi is extinct¹⁴. Research the potential impacts of PBFD on the population. Continue to improve nest-box design¹⁷. Plant non-invasive exotic fruit trees to provide an extra food source⁷.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
The species has been the subject of a conservation programme since 1973¹⁷. The dramatic increase in the species's population in recent years is undoubtedly due to an intensive programme to manage the wild population combined with a highly succesful captive breeding programme since the 1993/4 breeding season¹⁷ - a collaborative effort of the Mauritian Wildlife Foundation, the World Parrot Trust, the Mauritian Government and the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust Society² - which has released 22 captive-reared individuals since 1997¹⁴, of which at least 13 still survived in May 1998¹⁷. It was hoped that 20-30 captive-reared birds would be released each year from 1999 to 2003¹⁷. In the 2004/5 breeding season 11 chicks were produced by captive birds, and a new release site was set up where a total of 36 birds were released¹⁸. Intensive management includes nest site enhancement, provision of nest boxes (not yet used), supplementary feeding of some individuals, predator control around nest sites, control of nest competitors (White-tailed Tropicbird Phaeton lepturus), control of nest parasites, close guarding and monitoring of all nests, rescue of eggs/young from failing nests, clutch manipulations (double clutching, exchanging infertile eggs with fertile ones), and brood manipulations (downbrooding, ie removing extra chicks from large broods and giving to foster parents)^14,17. All nest cavities are enhanced, modified and repaired as necessary, and measures taken to eliminate rats and parasites and prevent flooding¹⁷. Habitat management has been directed at increasing the productivity of native forest and has included the foundation in 1993 of the Black River National Park in 6,574 ha of native forest^2,4, including most of the species's remaining habitat¹⁷. There are 14 Conservation Management Areas (CMAs), ranging from 0.2 to 24 ha, in which native forest is manually cleared of weeds¹⁷. These CMAs are heavily utilised by the species as their trees produce bumper crops¹⁴. Captive-reared birds have been released into the largest CMA, where problematic mammals are controlled¹⁷. Research is ongoing into present and historic genetic variation of the species so that the effects of the population bottleneck can be quantified and current populations managed to preserve maximum genetic diversity⁵. Research into the impact of PBFD is likely to be ongoing for several years¹⁹. Non-invasive exotic fruit trees are being planted to provide an extra food source¹⁰.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Improve nest site management^6,9. Feed wild birds with supplementary food^6,9. Increase production of birds for release by controlling disease and improving diet of captive birds^6,9. Establish new, and improve existing (in part by the use of predator proof fencing¹⁴) CMAs^9,14, and establish managed source populations breeding in nest boxes within these areas¹⁴. Redress the sex ratio through judicious harvesting of surplus male nestlings and releasing mainly young females¹⁴. Consider reintroduction to Réunion and introduction to the Seychelles, where Psittacula wardi is extinct¹⁴. Research the potential impacts of PBFD on the population. Continue to improve nest-box design¹⁷. Plant non-invasive exotic fruit trees to provide an extra food source⁷.

Bibliography [top]

	Greenwood, A. G. 1996. The Echo responds - a partnership between conservation biology, aviculture and veterinary science. PsittaScene 8(1): 6-7. Jones, C. G. 1987. The larger land-birds of Mauritius. In: Diamond, A.W. (ed.), Studies of Mascarene Island birds, pp. 208-300. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K. Jones, C. G.; Hartley, J. 1995. A conservation project on Mauritius and Rodrigues: an overview and bibliography. Dodo: Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 31: 40-65. Jones, C. G.; Swinnerton, K. J. 1997. A summary of the conservation status and research for the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus, Pink Pigeon Columba mayeri and Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques. Dodo: Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 33: 72-75. Jones, C. G.; Swinnerton, K.; Thorsen, M.; Greenwood, A. 1998. The biology and conservation of the Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques of Mauritius. Proceedings of the IVth International Parrot Convention: 110-123. Murray, S.M., Patil, A.R., Fahey, G.C., Merchen, N.R. and Hughes, D.M. 1998. Raw and rendered animal by-products as ingredients in dog diets. Journal of Animal Science 75: 2497-2505. Raffray, L. 2007. Echo Parakeet, a season with baby-boom and fatal virus. MWF Newsletter 7(1): 4. Safford, R. J.; Jones, C. G. 1998. Strategies for land-bird conservation on Mauritius. Conservation Biology 12: 169-176. Swinnerton, K. 1998. Echo parakeet Psittacula eques management report 1998. Mauritius Wildlife Foundation, Port Louis. Thorsen, M.; Jones, C. 1998. The conservation status of Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques of Mauritius. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 5(2): 122-126. Thorsen, M.; Shorten, R.; Buchanan, G.; Williams, S.; Jones, V.; Swinnerton, K.; de Ravel, F.; Webb, J.; Lam, R.; Schellander, H. 1997. Echo Parakeet (Psittacula eques) management report 1997.

Greenwood, A. G. 1996. The Echo responds - a partnership between conservation biology, aviculture and veterinary science. PsittaScene 8(1): 6-7.

Jones, C. G. 1987. The larger land-birds of Mauritius. In: Diamond, A.W. (ed.), Studies of Mascarene Island birds, pp. 208-300. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, U.K.

Jones, C. G.; Hartley, J. 1995. A conservation project on Mauritius and Rodrigues: an overview and bibliography. Dodo: Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 31: 40-65.

Jones, C. G.; Swinnerton, K. J. 1997. A summary of the conservation status and research for the Mauritius Kestrel Falco punctatus, Pink Pigeon Columba mayeri and Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques. Dodo: Journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 33: 72-75.

Jones, C. G.; Swinnerton, K.; Thorsen, M.; Greenwood, A. 1998. The biology and conservation of the Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques of Mauritius. Proceedings of the IVth International Parrot Convention: 110-123.

Murray, S.M., Patil, A.R., Fahey, G.C., Merchen, N.R. and Hughes, D.M. 1998. Raw and rendered animal by-products as ingredients in dog diets. Journal of Animal Science 75: 2497-2505.

Raffray, L. 2007. Echo Parakeet, a season with baby-boom and fatal virus. MWF Newsletter 7(1): 4.

Safford, R. J.; Jones, C. G. 1998. Strategies for land-bird conservation on Mauritius. Conservation Biology 12: 169-176.

Swinnerton, K. 1998. Echo parakeet Psittacula eques management report 1998. Mauritius Wildlife Foundation, Port Louis.

Thorsen, M.; Jones, C. 1998. The conservation status of Echo Parakeet Psittacula eques of Mauritius. Bulletin of the African Bird Club 5(2): 122-126.

Thorsen, M.; Shorten, R.; Buchanan, G.; Williams, S.; Jones, V.; Swinnerton, K.; de Ravel, F.; Webb, J.; Lam, R.; Schellander, H. 1997. Echo Parakeet (Psittacula eques) management report 1997.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2008. Psittacula eques. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 21 May 2012.
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