Polysticta stelleri

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	ANSERIFORMES	ANATIDAE

Scientific Name:

Polysticta stelleri

Species Authority:

(Pallas, 1769)

Common Name/s:

English

–

Steller's Eider

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Vulnerable A2bcd+3bcd+4bcd ver 3.1

Year Published:

2010

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Bird, J., Butchart, S. & Calvert, R.

Contributor/s:

Artukhin, Y., Dau, C., Laing, K., Pihl, S., Solovieva, D. & Stehn, H.

Justification:
This species is listed as Vulnerable because it is undergoing a rapid population reduction, particularly in the key Alaskan populations. Further studies are needed to determine the causes of these declines, and whether some populations may have shifted to unsurveyed areas within the range.

History:

2008	–	Vulnerable
2006	–	Vulnerable
2005	–	Vulnerable
2004	–	Least Concern
1996	–	Vulnerable
1994	–	Vulnerable

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Polysticta stelleri breeds between the Kolyma Delta and the Yamal Peninsula, Russia, and on the arctic plain of Alaska, USA^1,14. A remnant population breeds in western Alaska. Non-breeding populations summer in Novaya Zemlya, Russia, northern Norway and adjacent Russian waters, and south-west Alaska¹. Birds breeding east of the Khatanga Gulf, Russia, winter in the Bering Sea. Small numbers winter in northern Japan. Birds breeding west of the Khatanga Gulf winter in the north-east Atlantic Ocean and the Baltic Sea. The total current population estimate is 110,000-125,000 individuals. Wintering populations in Europe were estimated at 7,700-20,800 individuals in 2000², but this did not include all Russian populations: the total for Europe and Russia is estimated at 23,060-36,160 individuals. In Europe, marked declines have been noted in recent years, with numbers falling by an estimated 13% per annum in the Baltic between 1994 until 2003 and by 8% per annum in Norway between 1985 and 2003^3,12. Birds wintering in Alaska declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 79,022 individuals in 2005^4,10,15, a decline rate equivalent to 3.8% per annum, or 39.6% over 13 years (three generations). However, the 1992 result may have been an overestimate and counts in 2001 and 2002 may have been underestimates; correcting for these yields a 1.7% annual decline, or 19.1% over 13 years^11,15. The poorly known population wintering in east Asia may have declined by 20-40% to c.20,000-25,000 birds⁵, including 10,000-15,000 birds recently estimated to winter in the Russian Far East⁸. The number of eiders wintering on Bering Island, in the Commander Islands near Kamchatka, Russia, declined from estimates of 10,000 in the 1960s (Marakov 1965) to between 3,356-4,994 in 2005, 2006 and 2007¹⁶. It is possible that some of these declines reflect population redistribution to unknown areas. It has been speculated that declines in the Baltic could result from the population shifting to waters around the Kola Peninsula, Russia¹², although a survey of parts of this area in 2003 did not reveal sufficiently large numbers to confirm this¹³.
Countries:	Native: Denmark; Estonia; Finland; Japan; Latvia; Lithuania; Norway; Poland; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Sweden; United States Vagrant: Belgium; China; France; Germany; Greenland; Iceland; Netherlands; Svalbard and Jan Mayen; United Kingdom
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	10,000-15,000 estimated to winter in N Norway and SE Baltic (based on 4,297 off Kola Peninsula in April 2003 [Krasnov et al. 2004], 2,250 in S Baltic in 2003 (Zydelis et al. 2006) and 2,000-4,000 wintering off Norway (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006). 100,000-110,000 estimated to winter in N. Pacific (counts in N. America declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 77,329 in 2003, forming basis of 2003 N American population estimate of 90,000-95,000: K. Laing in litt. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006; 20,000 migrate through Kamchatka Peninsula in spring: Gerasimov and Gerasimov 2003).
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Population:

10,000-15,000 estimated to winter in N Norway and SE Baltic (based on 4,297 off Kola Peninsula in April 2003 [Krasnov et al. 2004], 2,250 in S Baltic in 2003 (Zydelis et al. 2006) and 2,000-4,000 wintering off Norway (unpublished information supplied by Wetlands International Specialist Groups to Wetlands International 2006). 100,000-110,000 estimated to winter in N. Pacific (counts in N. America declined from 137,904 in 1992 to 77,329 in 2003, forming basis of 2003 N American population estimate of 90,000-95,000: K. Laing in litt. 2005 to Wetlands International 2006; 20,000 migrate through Kamchatka Peninsula in spring: Gerasimov and Gerasimov 2003).

Population Trend:

Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour This species is migratory⁶. It begins to breed in June, nesting sometimes in single pairs in very low density (roughly one pair per 100 acres was recorded on the Kashunuk River in the 1960s)¹⁹, but occasionally in small colonies of up to 60+ nests²⁰. Around the time of hatching, males gather in large flocks off the coast near the breeding ground¹⁹. Shortly after hatching the female moves her brood to the coast where they form 'herds'¹⁹. The species migrates up to 3000km to its moulting sites^19,20, where it becomes flightless for a period, before some continue migration to more distant wintering sites²¹. The timing of the moult migration appears to be highly variable, occurring sometimes as early as August, but in some years not until November, in which case the moult occurs prior to arrival¹⁹. On the moulting grounds it forms flocks that may exceed 50,000 birds^20,22. Congregations of a similar size also occur also in the spring when pair formation occurs prior to departure for the breeding grounds²⁰. Spring migration commences in March in East Asia²⁰, and elsewhere it begins in April, usually peaking in May²⁰. Arrivals on the breeding grounds begin in early June²⁰. Some small flocks remain throughout the summer in the wintering quarters at Varangerfjiord²⁰. Habitat Breeding This species regularly breeds several kilometres inland²⁰. It inhabits pools of various shapes and sizes in areas that characterise flat coastal belt within open tundra²⁰. In the Lena Delta and Barrow areas it favours moss-lichen polygonal tundra²⁰. It forages in areas of fresh, saline or brackish water, and tidal flats¹⁹. Following hatching all birds move to coastal habitats¹⁹. Non-breeding It winters mostly at sea, along low-lying rocky coasts, frequenting bays and river mouths⁶. It forages in water that is less than 10m deep²³, and particularly favours areas where freshwater streams enter the sea²³. Diet It feeds chiefly on molluscs, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates⁶. During the breeding season, some freshwater prey is taken including chironomid and caddisfly larvae¹⁹. During moult, bivalve molluscs are the primary food source²⁴. Breeding site Nests are built on small hummocks or in depressions between hummocks, usually within a few metres of a tundra pond, and are often well-concealed by grass¹⁹. The nests are deep and lined with lichens, grass and down²⁰.
Systems:	Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour This species is migratory⁶. It begins to breed in June, nesting sometimes in single pairs in very low density (roughly one pair per 100 acres was recorded on the Kashunuk River in the 1960s)¹⁹, but occasionally in small colonies of up to 60+ nests²⁰. Around the time of hatching, males gather in large flocks off the coast near the breeding ground¹⁹. Shortly after hatching the female moves her brood to the coast where they form 'herds'¹⁹. The species migrates up to 3000km to its moulting sites^19,20, where it becomes flightless for a period, before some continue migration to more distant wintering sites²¹. The timing of the moult migration appears to be highly variable, occurring sometimes as early as August, but in some years not until November, in which case the moult occurs prior to arrival¹⁹. On the moulting grounds it forms flocks that may exceed 50,000 birds^20,22. Congregations of a similar size also occur also in the spring when pair formation occurs prior to departure for the breeding grounds²⁰. Spring migration commences in March in East Asia²⁰, and elsewhere it begins in April, usually peaking in May²⁰. Arrivals on the breeding grounds begin in early June²⁰. Some small flocks remain throughout the summer in the wintering quarters at Varangerfjiord²⁰. Habitat Breeding This species regularly breeds several kilometres inland²⁰. It inhabits pools of various shapes and sizes in areas that characterise flat coastal belt within open tundra²⁰. In the Lena Delta and Barrow areas it favours moss-lichen polygonal tundra²⁰. It forages in areas of fresh, saline or brackish water, and tidal flats¹⁹. Following hatching all birds move to coastal habitats¹⁹. Non-breeding It winters mostly at sea, along low-lying rocky coasts, frequenting bays and river mouths⁶. It forages in water that is less than 10m deep²³, and particularly favours areas where freshwater streams enter the sea²³. Diet It feeds chiefly on molluscs, crustaceans and other marine invertebrates⁶. During the breeding season, some freshwater prey is taken including chironomid and caddisfly larvae¹⁹. During moult, bivalve molluscs are the primary food source²⁴. Breeding site Nests are built on small hummocks or in depressions between hummocks, usually within a few metres of a tundra pond, and are often well-concealed by grass¹⁹. The nests are deep and lined with lichens, grass and down²⁰.

Systems:

Terrestrial; Freshwater; Marine

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Subsistence hunting has been ongoing in Alaska since the late 19th century, and may have affected breeding populations here. Studies at Barrow indicate that the species is subject to lead poisoning from the historical (and probably ongoing, but now illegal) use of lead shot. Disease and water pollution may impact eiders in their wintering area in south-west Alaska. Eiders breeding in Russia are subject to human subsistence harvest and exposure to lead shot. Declines of wintering birds on Bering Island, Russia appear to be greater on the west coast near the only village on the island; new protective zones are being proposed there¹⁶. Nest predation by mammalian and avian predators appears to be a threat on Alaskan breeding grounds; no nesting was observed on breeding grounds near Barrow between 2001 and 2004, but nesting has since occurred with some success following the inception of fox control in 2005¹⁷. Increasing human habitation of arctic regions has increased the range and numbers of Ravens and some large gulls, leading to a greater risk of predation²⁰. Recent dramatic changes in arctic sea ice extent and thickness north of Alaska and Russia may affect eiders in unknown ways. Habitat loss also occurs through prospecting for, and the exploitation of, natural resources such as oil and gas²⁰. The increasing traffic of tankers carrying oil from arctic areas imposes the risk of contamination following spills²⁰. It is not currently clear which of these many factors is driving the overall decline^4,12.

Major Threat(s):

Subsistence hunting has been ongoing in Alaska since the late 19th century, and may have affected breeding populations here. Studies at Barrow indicate that the species is subject to lead poisoning from the historical (and probably ongoing, but now illegal) use of lead shot. Disease and water pollution may impact eiders in their wintering area in south-west Alaska. Eiders breeding in Russia are subject to human subsistence harvest and exposure to lead shot. Declines of wintering birds on Bering Island, Russia appear to be greater on the west coast near the only village on the island; new protective zones are being proposed there¹⁶. Nest predation by mammalian and avian predators appears to be a threat on Alaskan breeding grounds; no nesting was observed on breeding grounds near Barrow between 2001 and 2004, but nesting has since occurred with some success following the inception of fox control in 2005¹⁷. Increasing human habitation of arctic regions has increased the range and numbers of Ravens and some large gulls, leading to a greater risk of predation²⁰. Recent dramatic changes in arctic sea ice extent and thickness north of Alaska and Russia may affect eiders in unknown ways. Habitat loss also occurs through prospecting for, and the exploitation of, natural resources such as oil and gas²⁰. The increasing traffic of tankers carrying oil from arctic areas imposes the risk of contamination following spills²⁰. It is not currently clear which of these many factors is driving the overall decline^4,12.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway A European action plan was published in 2000, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service successfully proposed the critical habitat designation of 4,528 km² of coastal habitat for the conservation of this species⁷. It is a protected species in both Russia and the USA. Work has begun in Russia to conduct waterfowl population and subsistence harvest surveys⁴. A captive breeding and research programme is underway in Alaska⁹. New protective zones are being proposed around wintering sites on Bearing Island¹⁶. CMS Appendix I and II. Conservation Actions Proposed Survey breeding and wintering grounds (particularly surrounding the Kola Peninsula, Russia) to determine population size and trends. Determine causes of current declines. Work to mitigate threats such as lead poisoning. Ensure subsistence harvest is sustainable.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
A European action plan was published in 2000, and the US Fish and Wildlife Service successfully proposed the critical habitat designation of 4,528 km² of coastal habitat for the conservation of this species⁷. It is a protected species in both Russia and the USA. Work has begun in Russia to conduct waterfowl population and subsistence harvest surveys⁴. A captive breeding and research programme is underway in Alaska⁹. New protective zones are being proposed around wintering sites on Bearing Island¹⁶. CMS Appendix I and II.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Survey breeding and wintering grounds (particularly surrounding the Kola Peninsula, Russia) to determine population size and trends. Determine causes of current declines. Work to mitigate threats such as lead poisoning. Ensure subsistence harvest is sustainable.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2010. Polysticta stelleri. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 17 May 2012.
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