Oxyura leucocephala

Taxonomy

Assessment Information

Geographic Range

Population

Habitat and Ecology

Threats

Conservation Actions

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Taxonomy [top]

Kingdom	Phylum	Class	Order	Family
ANIMALIA	CHORDATA	AVES	ANSERIFORMES	ANATIDAE

Scientific Name:

Oxyura leucocephala

Species Authority:

(Scopoli, 1769)

Common Name/s:

English	–	White-headed Duck
Spanish	–	Malvasía

Assessment Information [top]

Red List Category & Criteria:

Endangered A2bcde+4bcde ver 3.1

Year Published:

2008

Assessor/s:

BirdLife International

Reviewer/s:

Burfield, I., Butchart, S., Crosby, M. & Pople, R.

Contributor/s:

Criado, J., Esquivias, J., Green, A., Hatzofe, O., Hughes, B., Iankov, P., Isfendiyaroglu, S., Khan, A., Kreuzberg-Mukhina, E., Munteanu, D., Parveen, A., Tabur, M. & Yasmeen, R.

Justification:
Despite uncertainty about the possible large-scale inter-year movement of birds between wintering sites, mid-winter counts indicate that the population of this species has undergone a very rapid decline, which qualifies it as Endangered. The Spanish subpopulation has now stabilised, and it is projected that the global rate of decline will be lower in the next ten years.

History:

2006	–	Endangered
2004	–	Endangered
2000	–	Endangered
1996	–	Vulnerable
1994	–	Vulnerable

Geographic Range [top]

Range Description:	Oxyura leucocephala is resident in Spain, Algeria and Tunisia. A larger population breeds primarily in Russia and Kazakhstan, and also Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan (likely small and declining¹⁴), Turkmenistan¹⁴, Uzbekistan, Armenia, and Mongolia (believed to be increasing in this latter¹⁴). Its status in China is unclear, but it appears to be rare¹⁴. It occurs on passage/in winter in the eastern Mediterranean, the Middle East, and central and south Asia. The population was probably over 100,000 in the early 20th century, falling to an estimated 19,000 birds in 1991, since when numbers have probably declined to less than 10,000 individuals³. Concurrently, breeding populations have become extinct in Italy, France, Hungary, Albania, Yugoslavia, Greece, Israel and Egypt, and probably also in the Ukraine and Armenia. Exact population trends are difficult to calculate given that numbers on wintering grounds often change dramatically in line with altered water availability^13,14,15. At the former key wintering site, Burdur Gölü, Turkey, numbers have steadily declined from 10,927 birds in 1991 to 653 in 2001¹⁶. The total Turkish wintering population in 2005 was only 1,006 birds, down from over 9,000 in 1988¹². The wintering population in south Asia is mainly concentrated in Pakistan, where it has declined from 1,039 individuals in 1968 to less than 10 in 2002^10,14, 33 in January 2003 and 24 in January 2004. It is now only rarely recorded in India¹⁴. Increases at wintering sites in Israel¹¹, Syria, Greece⁵, Bulgaria⁷ and Romania⁹ and in the Spanish population (22 birds in 1977 to 2,396 birds in 2000²) do not compensate for the large declines at Burdur Gölü; and in other eastern populations (e.g.,Turkmenistan¹⁴). Important passage concentrations occur in Uzbekistan⁸ and Kazakhstan¹⁵. There are also reports of wintering populations in the Ukraine.
Countries:	Native: Afghanistan; Algeria; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bulgaria; China; Cyprus; Georgia; Greece; India; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Iraq; Israel; Jordan; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Mongolia; Morocco; Pakistan; Romania; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Russian Federation; Spain; Syrian Arab Republic; Tajikistan; Tunisia; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Ukraine; Uzbekistan Vagrant: Albania; Austria; Belgium; Bosnia and Herzegovina; Denmark; Egypt; France; Germany; Italy; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Malta; Netherlands; Poland; Portugal; Saudi Arabia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Switzerland Present - origin uncertain: Croatia; Macedonia, the former Yugoslav Republic of; Montenegro; Palestinian Territory, Occupied; Serbia
Range Map:	Click here to open the map viewer and explore range.

Population [top]

Population:	2,500 in Spain and Morocco (J. A. Torres Esquivias and A. Green in litt. 2002 to Wetlands International 2002); 400-600 in Algeria and Tunisia (H. Azafzaf and P. Isenmann in litt. 2002); 5,000-10,000 in E Mediterranean and SW Asia (Li and Mundkur 2002); 10 in S Asia (Chaudhry 2002; Li and Mundkur 2002).
Population Trend:	Decreasing

Habitat and Ecology [top]

Habitat and Ecology:	Behaviour The Central and east Asian populations of this species are migratory while the populations in Spain and North Africa are non-migratory¹⁹. Migrating birds breed from April to July^{17, 19} (its mating system is unconfirmed)¹⁹. After breeding it undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for 2-3 weeks before it begins the migration to its wintering grounds in late August to arrive September-October¹⁹. The return journey commences in February²⁰ and all birds have returned to the breeding range by early May^19,20. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season with more than 10,000 gathering at some winter sites, although individual flocks more usually contain less than 500 individuals¹⁹. It breeds in single pairs¹⁹. In Mediterranean populations, although the species forms congregations at certain sites during the non-breeding season, there is no overall direction to its seasonal movements¹⁹ and the location of such non-breeding sites varies inter-annually¹⁹. Habitat Breeding It breeds on small, enclosed, semi-permanent or temporary¹⁹ freshwater, brackish or eutrophic lakes with a fringe of dense emergent vegetation¹⁷, often including Phragmites or Typha species, and a covering of pondweeds (Potamogetonaceae)²⁰. It is usually found where these conditions occur within larger wetland systems¹⁹, and shows a preference for areas with extensive areas of shallow water 0.3-0.5 m deep¹⁹. Non-breeding During the winter the species inhabits larger, deeper alkaline or saline waters which have less emergent vegetation than in the breeding season, but still support algae and pondweeds²⁰. Habitats include saline inland lakes, coastal lakes and lagoons, and even the coastal waters of inland seas¹⁹, although it is not found on areas of coast that are subjected to heavy wave action²⁰. It is thought to choose water bodies which are sufficiently alkaline so as not to freeze over during winter²⁰. Diet This is a diving duck¹⁷, its diet consisting predominantly of midge (chironomid) larvae^{17, 19} and other aquatic invertebrates such as amphipods, isopods and polychaetes¹⁷ (especially in coastal wintering sites¹⁹). Seeds¹⁷ and the vegetative parts of Potamogeton spp., Ruppia spp. and other aquatic plants are also be taken^19,20. Breeding site The nest is constructed over water in emergent vegetation (usually Phragmites spp. or Typha spp.)¹⁹. It consists of a cupped platform of leaves and stems, over which a roof may be formed by bending down overhead leaves²⁰. It will also use old nests of coots or ducks, and has been found to make use of nesting boxes in which it constructs a nest of twigs²⁰. .
Systems:	Terrestrial; Freshwater

Habitat and Ecology:

Behaviour The Central and east Asian populations of this species are migratory while the populations in Spain and North Africa are non-migratory¹⁹. Migrating birds breed from April to July^{17, 19} (its mating system is unconfirmed)¹⁹. After breeding it undergoes a flightless moulting period lasting for 2-3 weeks before it begins the migration to its wintering grounds in late August to arrive September-October¹⁹. The return journey commences in February²⁰ and all birds have returned to the breeding range by early May^19,20. The species is highly gregarious outside of the breeding season with more than 10,000 gathering at some winter sites, although individual flocks more usually contain less than 500 individuals¹⁹. It breeds in single pairs¹⁹. In Mediterranean populations, although the species forms congregations at certain sites during the non-breeding season, there is no overall direction to its seasonal movements¹⁹ and the location of such non-breeding sites varies inter-annually¹⁹. Habitat Breeding It breeds on small, enclosed, semi-permanent or temporary¹⁹ freshwater, brackish or eutrophic lakes with a fringe of dense emergent vegetation¹⁷, often including Phragmites or Typha species, and a covering of pondweeds (Potamogetonaceae)²⁰. It is usually found where these conditions occur within larger wetland systems¹⁹, and shows a preference for areas with extensive areas of shallow water 0.3-0.5 m deep¹⁹. Non-breeding During the winter the species inhabits larger, deeper alkaline or saline waters which have less emergent vegetation than in the breeding season, but still support algae and pondweeds²⁰. Habitats include saline inland lakes, coastal lakes and lagoons, and even the coastal waters of inland seas¹⁹, although it is not found on areas of coast that are subjected to heavy wave action²⁰. It is thought to choose water bodies which are sufficiently alkaline so as not to freeze over during winter²⁰. Diet This is a diving duck¹⁷, its diet consisting predominantly of midge (chironomid) larvae^{17, 19} and other aquatic invertebrates such as amphipods, isopods and polychaetes¹⁷ (especially in coastal wintering sites¹⁹). Seeds¹⁷ and the vegetative parts of Potamogeton spp., Ruppia spp. and other aquatic plants are also be taken^19,20. Breeding site The nest is constructed over water in emergent vegetation (usually Phragmites spp. or Typha spp.)¹⁹. It consists of a cupped platform of leaves and stems, over which a roof may be formed by bending down overhead leaves²⁰. It will also use old nests of coots or ducks, and has been found to make use of nesting boxes in which it constructs a nest of twigs²⁰. .

Systems:

Terrestrial; Freshwater

Threats [top]

Major Threat(s):	Approximately 50% of breeding habitat has been drained during the 20th century. Remaining sites are vulnerable to drainage, filling, pollution and disturbance. A 1989 study in the main Pakistani wintering lakes showed that suitable habitat had decreased because of lowered water levels due to reduced water supply, and that fisheries had increased disturbance¹⁰. Water abstraction for agriculture and other uses has affected water levels in many important sites throughout the range. The European population is threatened by competition and hybridisation with the introduced Ruddy Duck O. jamaicensis. ²¹. Both male Ruddy Ducks and male hybrids are socially dominant over male White-headed Ducks during courtship²⁰. The genetic diversity of the European population is low²² owing to its having suffered a bottleneck in the 1970s and early 1980s when only a few dozen individuals remained in the wild^20,22. This may lessen the adaptive potential of the population, rendering it less able to withstand environmental change²². Further threats include drowning in fishing-nets, hunting and ingestion of lead shot^1,4,10,23. Droughts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan may have caused recent poor breeding seasons^6,14. The species is hunted illegally in most of the range states but this has not been quantified, apart from in Turkey. Hunting and egg collection are the most likely reason for extinction in some countries¹⁸.

Major Threat(s):

Approximately 50% of breeding habitat has been drained during the 20th century. Remaining sites are vulnerable to drainage, filling, pollution and disturbance. A 1989 study in the main Pakistani wintering lakes showed that suitable habitat had decreased because of lowered water levels due to reduced water supply, and that fisheries had increased disturbance¹⁰. Water abstraction for agriculture and other uses has affected water levels in many important sites throughout the range. The European population is threatened by competition and hybridisation with the introduced Ruddy Duck O. jamaicensis. ²¹. Both male Ruddy Ducks and male hybrids are socially dominant over male White-headed Ducks during courtship²⁰. The genetic diversity of the European population is low²² owing to its having suffered a bottleneck in the 1970s and early 1980s when only a few dozen individuals remained in the wild^20,22. This may lessen the adaptive potential of the population, rendering it less able to withstand environmental change²². Further threats include drowning in fishing-nets, hunting and ingestion of lead shot^1,4,10,23. Droughts in Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan may have caused recent poor breeding seasons^6,14. The species is hunted illegally in most of the range states but this has not been quantified, apart from in Turkey. Hunting and egg collection are the most likely reason for extinction in some countries¹⁸.

Conservation Actions [top]

Conservation Actions:	Conservation Actions Underway CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. The species is legally protected in many range countries, and occurs in a number of protected areas. A conservation programme in Spain has resulted in a significant population increase¹. O. jamaicensis are controlled in Spain, Portugal and France, and a program was started in 2005 to eradicate the UK population of around 5,000. Reintroduction schemes are operational in Majorca and Corsica⁶. A European action plan was published in 2006¹⁸. Sport hunting has been banned on two primary wintering lakes (Burdur Gölü and Yarisli Gölü) in Turkey where hunting from speedboats was threatening the White-headed Duck²⁰. Conservation Actions Proposed Survey breeding and wintering grounds and migration sites. Enforce strict protection from hunting. Conduct comprehensive winter monitoring, and tracking studies to improve knowledge of migration routes and phenology¹⁴. Protect and manage key sites and their catchments, including monitoring of hydrology and water pollution¹⁶. Reduce disturbance by fisheries. Ensure legislative protection for this species in all range states¹⁴. Alleviate hunting pressure and ban lead shot throughout its range. Prevent drowning in fishing nets by regulating fisheries. Promote policies to control O. jamaicensis and hybrids.

Conservation Actions:

Conservation Actions Underway
CITES Appendix II. CMS Appendix I. The species is legally protected in many range countries, and occurs in a number of protected areas. A conservation programme in Spain has resulted in a significant population increase¹. O. jamaicensis are controlled in Spain, Portugal and France, and a program was started in 2005 to eradicate the UK population of around 5,000. Reintroduction schemes are operational in Majorca and Corsica⁶. A European action plan was published in 2006¹⁸. Sport hunting has been banned on two primary wintering lakes (Burdur Gölü and Yarisli Gölü) in Turkey where hunting from speedboats was threatening the White-headed Duck²⁰.

Conservation Actions Proposed
Survey breeding and wintering grounds and migration sites. Enforce strict protection from hunting. Conduct comprehensive winter monitoring, and tracking studies to improve knowledge of migration routes and phenology¹⁴. Protect and manage key sites and their catchments, including monitoring of hydrology and water pollution¹⁶. Reduce disturbance by fisheries. Ensure legislative protection for this species in all range states¹⁴. Alleviate hunting pressure and ban lead shot throughout its range. Prevent drowning in fishing nets by regulating fisheries. Promote policies to control O. jamaicensis and hybrids.

Citation:	BirdLife International 2008. Oxyura leucocephala. In: IUCN 2011. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2011.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 24 May 2012.
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